Otherwise it will serve as a breeding ground for the pest which will then attack the main crop in large numbers. The plant species used for trap crop should be one that is very attractive to the insect. The preferred host plants can also be grown around the main crop and when the pest has appeared it can be cut and destroyed. The other methods of cultural control are early cutting of crop, rate and depth of planting, sowing, separation of complimentary host plants, pasturing the heavy infected crops and drying out the soil etc. Physical and Mechanical Control: The protection of crops and foods from insect attack by physical and mechanical means is the simplest and most effective method. Such measures consist of destruction of insects by mechanical means, burning, trapping, protective screens or barriers, use of high or low temperature, soaking in water and drying. 1. Hand Picking: When only a few plants are infected, certain large conspicuous species may be removed from the plants by hand and destroyed just by pressing the abdomen or dipping them in kerosenized water. 2. Mechanical Means: A rotary blow has been found to destroy over 96 of white grubs as well as cut worms, army worms and other caterpillars. The cutting wheel is thirty two inches in diameter and fourteen inches wide and carries sixteen steel blades. It operates by power take off from a tractor at 150 rpm. 3. Trapping: The insects may be turned into a tray by light and baits or the trap may be mobile and drawn across a field. 4. Light Traps: The attraction of nocturnal insects to light is a common observation and the light traps have been invented and tested for killing crop pests. The attractiveness of an artificial light depends upon its candle power and colour. A yellow light will attract 60 fewer insects than a white light of the same candle power and brightness. The insects attracted by light may be destroyed as they hit electric grid or they may be drowned in water and oil after they have been turned into the trap. 5. Bait Traps: Baits are a form of control whereby insects are attracted to a selected spot on which they can be easily removed. Bait traps have been found to be very effective in controlling the nocturnal insects like cockroaches, crickets, caterpillars and nocturnal moths. 6. Temperature Treatments: a Low Temperature Control: Low temperature extremes are fatal to insects of stored grains.


Bait traps have been found to be very effective in controlling the nocturnal insects like cockroaches, crickets, caterpillars and nocturnal moths. 6. Temperature Treatments: a Low Temperature Control: Low temperature extremes are fatal to insects of stored grains. Usually a temperature of 28 C or lower for at least several hours will kill most of the insects. Tribolium confusum can be killed in 24 h when exposed to subzero temperatures. Low temperatures are utilized for the control of insects in mills, warehouses and similar establishments. B High Temperature Control: High temperatures are also fatal to other species and can be used to kill them. Heating cotton seeds to a temperature of 65.5 C for 30 seconds will kill all pink boll worms in the seeds. Temperature of 48.8-51.6 C in all plants of a flour mill for 10-12 h will kill all insects exposed to such temperature. Exposing the infested grains to the sun also kill all the adults of the stored grain insects. 7. Physical Barriers: The protection of crops from insects by barrier is possible in case of crawling and migratory insects. Treated paper barriers and dust barriers are also used. Trenches are also used to stop army worms. Similarly water channels can be used for checking the migration of crawling insects. 8. Burning: Although destroying insects by burning their shelters is sometime practicable, burning pastures and woodland to destroy insects should not be recommended. It has been found that such practices reduce soil fertility and increases soil erosion. Furthermore, it fails to destroy injurious species but does eradicate many beneficial forms. Both cutting away dead hearts and burning them in time save valuable crops from destruction. Burning the field refuse and stubbles, are the other useful ways of pest control. 9. Sieving and Winnowing: It is possible only for domestic purposes. 10. Flooding: It is well known that a large number of insects breed and dwell in the soil, which may be destroyed by flooding the fields with water. There are several other simple methods through which a number of pest infestation can be controlled but the mechanical method of insect pest control involves a lot of labour like shaking the trees and killing the insects either in the larval or adult stages. Biological Control: The term biological control means control of insects by several biological agencies such as parasites, predators and pathogens.


Flooding: It is well known that a large number of insects breed and dwell in the soil, which may be destroyed by flooding the fields with water. There are several other simple methods through which a number of pest infestation can be controlled but the mechanical method of insect pest control involves a lot of labour like shaking the trees and killing the insects either in the larval or adult stages. Biological Control: The term biological control means control of insects by several biological agencies such as parasites, predators and pathogens. The introduction of sterile males in a normal population and use of sex attractants have been reported to bring about effective biological control. The theoretical basis of the biological control defends on the existence of a natural enemy. The effective natural enemy can be deduced to have the following characteristics: i High searching ability, ii High degree of host specificity or preference, iii Good reproductive capacity relative to the host iv Good adaptation to a wide range of environmental conditions. The most essential characteristic is high searching ability. It should be borne in mind that a really effective enemy may be scarce in its native home because it regulates the host population at low level. There usually is one best enemy for each species in a given habitat and one frequently is sufficient for complete biological control, often, however, a second or third enemy species may add to host population regulation and may in fact be necessary to achieve satisfactory biological control. The best enemy species may differ for different host habitats. Hence there is generally no single best natural enemy extending throughout the range of a pest species. With these qualities the introduced natural enemy by itself or in conjunction with other mortality factors is expected to prevent outbreak of the pest species or at least to drop down major population fluctuations. The essential principle of biological control is to maintain a state of biological equilibrium of a living organism. This biological equilibrium is normally maintained by a set of forces called environmental resistance. Often the biological equilibrium of a living organism is disturbed either due to environmental or biotic factors and consequently a particular organism multiplies and spreads in a unlimited manner so as to assume the status of a pest. The inherent ability of an organism to survive and to reproduce within a given time and under optimal environmental conditions is known as biotic potential. Biotic potential is a force opposed to environmental resistance. It takes into account the number of young produced per female in each reproduction, the number of reproduction in a given time and the sex ratio of the species.


The inherent ability of an organism to survive and to reproduce within a given time and under optimal environmental conditions is known as biotic potential. Biotic potential is a force opposed to environmental resistance. It takes into account the number of young produced per female in each reproduction, the number of reproduction in a given time and the sex ratio of the species. Advantages of Biological Control: Only a limited number of introduced pests have been successfully exterminated with chemicals. It would seem wiser in many instances to attempt a biological control programme which might reduce pest populations below the level which causes economic damage. Biological control has the tremendous advantage that, if successful, it becomes self-sustaining and integrated into the normal environment of the control area. If pest populations are reduced to the point where economic damage is negligible, the control programme is a success. Biological controls tend to be particularly useful on low unit-value crops where complete control may not be required or where chemicals are not recommended. Pests of field and forage crops, forests, and range may be economically controlled by biological methods; chemical controls against such pests may be impractical. A biological control destined to be fully effective will be easily and quickly established. If an imported parasite or predator is not established within three years of careful releases under good conditions for its development, the programme may be justifiably discontinued. Types of Biological Control: There are 4 main types of biological control viz.:. I Introduction of parasites, ii Predators, iii Pathogenic organisms such as bacteria, viruses and fungi etc. And iv Removal of fertile males and creating sterility in males by gamma radiation and introducing these sterile males in a normal population. In addition to these 4 main types, there is a fifth type of biological control where the indigenous parasite of the locality is being utilized for this purpose. 1. Parasites: Parasitic insects develop as larvae on or in a single host individual from eggs generally laid on, in or near the host and usually consume all or most of the host body, killing the host and then pupate, either within or outside the host. The free living adult parasite emerges from the pupa and starts the next generation a new by actively searching for host in which to oviposit. They tend to attack only one host stage i.e. eggs, larvae, or pupae, although there is also some overlapping in certain cases, adult insects do not serve as hosts.


The free living adult parasite emerges from the pupa and starts the next generation a new by actively searching for host in which to oviposit. They tend to attack only one host stage i.e. eggs, larvae, or pupae, although there is also some overlapping in certain cases, adult insects do not serve as hosts. Very often life cycles are commonly short, ranging from 10 days to 2 weeks or so in mid-summer but correspondingly longer in cold weather. In general, they all have great potential rates of increase. According to the species one or more parasitic larvae may characteristically develop per host individual, thus we have either solitary or gregarious parasitism. Sometimes two different species of larvae develop from eggs laid in the same host. This is multiple parasitism. There is also ectoparasitism and endoparasitism, depending upon whether the larva develops externally or internally. The major groups occur in two orders of insects viz. Hymenoptera and Diptera. 2. Predators: Predator insects differ from parasitic ones in that the larvae or nymphs, as the case may be, require several to many prey individuals to attain maturity. The adults generally deposit their eggs near the prey population and after hatching the active mobile immature search out and consume prey individuals. This need of larvae or nymphs to search is an important distinction from parasitic forms whose larvae develop on a single host individual and thus have the advantage of not having to discover additional hosts. Adults of many species are also predatory. There may be one or several generations to one of the prey. Larvae and nymphs as well as corresponding adults may be predaceous or only one stage may exhibit the habit. 3. Pathogens: Pathogenic microorganisms attack insects and have life cycles more or less characteristic or similar microorganisms developing in other groups of animals. Insects are probably subject to as wide as variety of disease as are the vertebrates. Except for the fungi, disease organisms gain entry in the host via mouth or the digestive tract, i.e. the insect host must eat plant or other food contaminated with pathogen. In case of fungi, entrance is gained through the insect integument and free water or very high humidity is generally required. Thus, fungi tend to be restricted to moist environments.


The insect host must eat plant or other food contaminated with pathogen. In case of fungi, entrance is gained through the insect integument and free water or very high humidity is generally required. Thus, fungi tend to be restricted to moist environments. However, fungi do have advantage of attacking sucking insects which because of the nature of their feeding on sap, tend to be fairly free of disease caused by microorganisms because they rarely ingest them. Virtually no insect disease organisms occur in mammals and none have been recorded from man. Thus they are safe to use in biological control even in large scale microbial spraying operations. 4. Genetic Methods: Genetic pest control implies the manipulation and use of genetic material in a manner injurious to pest insects. The control of insect pest populations by the release of sterile males has been demonstrated with at least five insect species. This spectacular technique has been termed autocidal control and involves using an insect species to bring about its own self-destruction. It is accomplished by irradiating laboratory reared males of the species to an extent sufficient to disrupt the genetic function of the sperm nucleus but not appreciably interfere with the normal ability of the male to mate or of the sperm to penetrate the egg of the female. However, such fertilized eggs fail to develop so a wild female mated with a sterilized male produces no progeny. If sterile males are released in large enough number in relation to the wild population they will fertilize more females than will the wild males. The advantage is cumulative in each generation hence eradication may be achieved within a few generations under ideal conditions. The boll weevil is reported to have been eradicated from a small isolated field by the release of chemically sterilized males. Chemosterilants have been under intensive investigation but are not as yet practical. They offer the advantage of treating the wild population directly and thus avoiding the mass rearing necessary with gamma radiation. Use of Pheromones: The ability of an insect to locate a mate and to copulate once it has been found is often directed by natural specific chemicals produced by the insect called pheromones. Natural chemical attractants and mating stimulants have been shown to occur in many pest insects. They are often effective in incredibly small concentrations; one caged virgin female of the introduced pine sawfly attracted over 11000 males. Some have been chemically identified and even synthesized. Its high specificity for particular target insects however makes this approach highly desirable.


They are often effective in incredibly small concentrations; one caged virgin female of the introduced pine sawfly attracted over 11000 males. Some have been chemically identified and even synthesized. Its high specificity for particular target insects however makes this approach highly desirable. Such phenomena gave rise to the intriguing idea of using these natural or artificial pheromones to attract and trap insects, to lure them to contact poisons, chemosterilants or pathogens and to mask the location of females by saturating the environment with synthetic sex pheromones. Such techniques could offer highly specific control methods with little or no ecological side effects. It appears that adequate control from pheromones or attractants probably can only result if they are so highly effective as to be able to reduce the pest population to low level in the treated area and are used over a large area so that immigration of the pest from the outside would not negate the effort. Pheromone traps are commonly used for controlling various moths Heliothis, Spodoptera, Leucinodes etc. Chemical Control: Recent discoveries of new synthetic insecticides have sparked exciting advances and major breakthroughs in the control of insect enemies. Chemicals have subdued pests that once caused wide spread crop destruction, death of domestic animals and epidemics of insect borne human diseases. The modern insecticides are both effective and reliable. The whole world is resorting to them more and more for the solution of many insect problems. The chemicals which kill the insects by their chemical action are termed as insecticides. They are used for the protection of men, domestic animals, crops, agricultural products from the attack of insects when other methods fail to control the pests. Insecticides are seldom used in full strength but are formulated in a variety of ways to make them easier for application. Formulations of Insecticides: Following are the common formulations of insecticides viz.:. 1 Dusts, 2 Granular formulations, 3 Insecticide-fertilizer mixtures, 4 Wettable powders, 5 Solutions, 6 Emulsifiable concentrates, 7 Aerosoles, 8 Fumigants and 9 Miscellaneous formulations. Whatever may be the formulations the poisonous chemical present in an insecticide must penetrate the vital organs and tissues of the insect and ultimately kill it.


Insecticides are seldom used in full strength but are formulated in a variety of ways to make them easier for application. Formulations of Insecticides: Following are the common formulations of insecticides viz.:. 1 Dusts, 2 Granular formulations, 3 Insecticide-fertilizer mixtures, 4 Wettable powders, 5 Solutions, 6 Emulsifiable concentrates, 7 Aerosoles, 8 Fumigants and 9 Miscellaneous formulations. Whatever may be the formulations the poisonous chemical present in an insecticide must penetrate the vital organs and tissues of the insect and ultimately kill it. 1 Dusts: Insecticidal dusts are those powders which are used dry and mixed with or impregnated with certain organic materials or pulverised minerals powders such as talc, pyrophyllite, bentonite etc. These minerals are called carriers or vehicles since they carry the insecticide. Dusts are blown to deposit on plants by dusting machinery or blowers. Ground to a fine size, most dust will pass through a 325 mesh screen and range in size from 1 to 40 . The finished dust may be 0.1 to 25 active material. In dust form, in general, the toxicity of an insecticide increases as the particle size decreases. 2 Granular Formulations: These are similar to dusts except for larger particle size. The range of particle size in a granular product is designated by a two figures mesh classification e.g. 30 60 means that virtually all the insecticide granules will pass through a standard 30-mesh sieve while a negligible quantity will pass through a standard 60 mesh sieve. Some of the common granular formulations are 16 30, 20 40, 24 48 and 30 60. Granular insecticides are generally used as dressings on or in the soil and may be applied with fertilizer spreaders or special granule applicators. 3 Insecticide Fertilizer Mixtures: Insecticide fertilizer mixtures may be formulated by adding granular insecticides to commercial fertilizers or by spraying insecticides directly on to the fertilizer. Such mixtures are applied at the regular fertilizing time to provide both plant nutrients and control of soil insects.


Granular insecticides are generally used as dressings on or in the soil and may be applied with fertilizer spreaders or special granule applicators. 3 Insecticide Fertilizer Mixtures: Insecticide fertilizer mixtures may be formulated by adding granular insecticides to commercial fertilizers or by spraying insecticides directly on to the fertilizer. Such mixtures are applied at the regular fertilizing time to provide both plant nutrients and control of soil insects. 4 Wettable Powders: These are similar to dusts but they are meant to be diluted and suspended in water and used as spray. To make an insecticidal dust act in this manner a dispersing and wetting agent is added to the formulation. They are more concentrated than dust as they may contain as high as 75 toxicant. 5 Solutions:Many of the modern synthetic insecticides are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. These soluble insecticides in solution form are used directly for insect control. They are however seldom used on plants because of their phytotoxic reaction. 6 Emulsifiable Concentrates: The most common and versatile formulation is the emulsifiable concentrate. This formulation consists of an insecticide, a solvent for the insecticide and an emulsifying agent. Mixing the concentrate with water forms an emulsion. The solvent used may evaporate quickly after spraying leaving a deposit of toxicant after the water has evaporated. The use of an emulsifying agent serves several purposes; it makes possible the diluting of a water insoluble chemical with water, it reduces the surface tension of the spray thus allowing it to spread and wet the treated surface more effectively, helps the spray and make a better contact with the insect cuticle. Generally oil soluble emulsifying substance is used. Normally emulsions are unstable and break up into their component parts. This action is termed breaking. For spraying on plants a quick breaking mixture is preferred. Since this results in heavier deposits of toxicant. 7 Insecticidal Aerosols: Aerosols are minute particles suspended in air or fog or smoke. The diameter of these particles range from 0.1 to 50 . The dispersion of insecticide into aerosol form may be accomplished by burning, vapourising with heat, atomizing mechanically or releasing through a small hole an insecticide that has been dissolved in a liquified gas. The last method of aerosol preparation gives the popular aerosol bomb.


The diameter of these particles range from 0.1 to 50 . The dispersion of insecticide into aerosol form may be accomplished by burning, vapourising with heat, atomizing mechanically or releasing through a small hole an insecticide that has been dissolved in a liquified gas. The last method of aerosol preparation gives the popular aerosol bomb. 8 Fumigants:Insecticides used in the gaseous form are known as fumigants. Fumigants are most often formulated as liquids under pressure and are held in tanks. When the liquid is released in open air it changes back to a gas, quite often fumigants are a mixture of two or more gases. 9 Miscellaneous Formulations: There are certain insecticides which are special formulations meant for specific uses. Often insecticides are stuffed in large pills and capsules and introduced into the stomach of animal. Insecticides may be mixed in shampoos, intended for use on house pets waxes for use on floors may contain an insecticide. Poison baits consist of toxicants combined with food stuff attractive to the insect pests. All these types of insecticides are special formulations designed for special purposes. Synergists: Some chemicals have the property of greatly increasing toxicity of certain insecticides. When the increased toxicity is markedly greater than the sum of the two used separately, it is termed a synergistic action. Most synergists have been used with pyrethrum or allethrin etc. Synergistic action is important because it provides a means for a more effective insecticide and it reduces the cost of control. Legal Control: Legal control is the lawful regulation of areas to eradicate, prevent or control infestation or reduce the damage caused by insects. This mainly involves the use of quarantines and pest control procedures. The central and state officials often work with local community or districts as in mosquito or locust control projects. Crop Harvesting: Harvesting: Have you ever wondered how we get food grains supplied neat and cleaned directly to the shop? Yes, farmers are using traditional and modern techniques for harvesting the crops grown. There are various stages to harvesting a variety of crops when the particular crop attains its maturity. Harvesting the crops at matured levels gives high income, and good quality produces. If the crops such as pulses, cereals, oilseeds, etc.,. Are left in the field for too long after maturity without harvesting, it can lead to the predisposition of pests.


Maturity indices are a set of indicators that tell us when our crops have reached their optimal stage for harvest, based on various factors like size, color, texture, or taste. Here are some maturity indices for vegetables that are commonly sold in the local markets. These indices can serve as a guide for growers and consumers in determining the ideal time to harvest and purchase these crops for optimal flavor and quality. Tomato For local markets in the Philippines, tomatoes are typically harvested when they have reached the breaker stage, which is when the fruit has just started to changecolor from green to red. This is because the market demand for tomatoes is usually for ripe, red tomatoes that are ready for immediate consumption. It is important for growers to keep in mind that tomatoes that are picked too early will not ripen properly and may not have the desired flavor or texture. On the other hand, overripe tomatoes may be too soft and have a shorter shelf life. Eggplant Eggplants should be harvested at the right stage of maturity to ensure good quality and yield. Commercial maturity for eggplant is generally reached when the fruit has reached its full size and firmness, and has developed a glossy, smooth skin with a uniform color. The fruit should have a dark purple or black color, be firm to the touch, and have a slight give when gently squeezed. The calyx, or stem, should be green and firmly attached to the fruit. It is important to note that overly matured eggplants may have a bitter taste. Squash When the squash is ripe, its color becomes dull or matte, and it loses its sheen. Another indication is the hardness of the skin. When the skin of the squash becomes hard and difficult to puncture, it is a sign that it is mature and ready for harvest. Additionally, the tendril near the stem of the squash plant starts to dry out and turn brown when the squash is mature. The leaves of the plant may also start to wilt or yellow when the squash is ready to be harvested. Onion Onions are ready for harvest when their leaves start to turn yellow and fall over. This is an indication that the plant has stopped growing and the bulbs have reached their full size. The outer skin of the onion bulb should also be dry and papery. Once the leaves have fallen over and the skin is dry, the onion bulbs can be pulled from the ground and left to dry for a few days in a cool, dry, and well-ventilated area.


This is an indication that the plant has stopped growing and the bulbs have reached their full size. The outer skin of the onion bulb should also be dry and papery. Once the leaves have fallen over and the skin is dry, the onion bulbs can be pulled from the ground and left to dry for a few days in a cool, dry, and well-ventilated area. After drying, the onions can be cleaned, trimmed, and stored. Garlic The timing of garlic harvest is determined by the maturity of the bulbs, which is indicated by the drying and browning of the leaves. When approximately one-half of the leaves have turned yellow or brown and have begun to dry out, it is time to harvest the garlic bulbs. Bitter gourd Bitter gourds are harvested when they have reached a length of 4-6 inches and a diameter of about one inch. The color should also be dark green, which indicates that it is still young and tender. The seeds inside the bitter gourd should be small and white, which indicates that the vegetable is still young and has not yet matured. Cucumber Cucumbers are typically harvested when they are young and tender for best flavor and texture. Cucumbers intended for the local market are usually harvested when they are still green, although some varieties may have a slightly yellow or white coloration. Over-ripe cucumbers will turn yellow or orange and are no longer suitable for the market. Cucumbers intended for fresh consumption should have a crisp texture and a slightly sweet, mild flavor. Overly matured cucumbers may have a bitter or unpleasant taste. It is important for growers and consumers to know the maturity indices of vegetables because it helps ensure that the vegetables are harvested at the optimal time for consumption or processing. For growers, knowledge of maturity indices can help them plan their planting and harvesting schedule, as well as manage their resources more efficiently. For consumers, knowing the maturity indices can help them choose the freshest and most nutritious vegetables, as well as get the best value for their moneyMethods of Harvesting There are three essential methods of cutting the crop or harvesting. 1. Hand Harvesting Manual Harvesting: Hand harvesting is a method of gathering grains, fruits, vegetables, leaves, etc.,. By hand or manually. Fig: Hand Harvesting 2. Harvesting with Hand Tools: Farmers use a few tools to harvest the crops.


Cleaning, fumigation, and drying are done to the stockroom before the grains are stored or deposited. The grains are later transported to dissimilar places throughout the year. Importance of Harvesting 1. Harvesting crops by using advanced technology reduces the wastage of grains and increases in quality and quantity. 2. The direction of cutting fruits, grains and vegetables are very important during harvesting to save the quality of the fruits and also, we should see that the tools used should not damage the plant. 3. Harvesting at the right stage enriches the quality of grains or seed protection. Summary Harvesting is the act of gathering the edible parts of the plant after they approach the stage of maturity. Harvesting of crops is done using many tools and types of machinery in the agricultural fields. The tools that are used while harvesting, such as sickle, axe, etc.,. To harvest the crops like paddy, wheat, maize, grass, etc. Hand harvesting, harvesting with hand tools and harvesting with machinery are the three harvesting methods. Reaping, threshing, cleaning and hauling are the four stages of harvesting. The importance of harvesting crops by using advanced technology reduces the wastage of grains and increases in quality and quantity. Post-Harvest Management Best Practices and Methods Reducing post-harvest loss is critical. Great post-harvest management will help address the growing concerns around food sustainability. What does post-harvest mean? Post-harvest process is the stage that immediately follows the harvest. The final quantity and quality of the product depends on it. Appropriate pre-harvest practices and harvesting the crop at the right time using adequate farming equipment are also important in order to optimize the overall postharvest output. Additionally, post-harvest management includes various steps such as: Drying: This decreases the moisture levels to ensure safe storage and prevents grain germination. It also reduces the risk of fungal attack and contamination by aflatoxin, maximizing the quality of crops retained. Threshing Shelling: Threshing or shelling of grains helps to reduce the required storage capacity and minimize the susceptibility of the grain to pests. Cleaning Winnowing: This involves removing any foreign matter from the grain, such as leaf, stalk, or empty seeds, in order to optimize its market value. Storage: Protecting the grain from climatic changes and contamination by insects and pests is crucial. Various post-harvest grain storage methods can accomplish this.


Cleaning Winnowing: This involves removing any foreign matter from the grain, such as leaf, stalk, or empty seeds, in order to optimize its market value. Storage: Protecting the grain from climatic changes and contamination by insects and pests is crucial. Various post-harvest grain storage methods can accomplish this. Transport: Grains sold to buyers are transported to warehouses or markets where they are made available to the common folk. Minimize post-harvest losses and preserve produce by correctly following the steps above. How does grain storage play a major role? Agricultural products are stored before they are made available and accessible to the public. The storage process keeps grains, whether in bags or in bulk, in a storage structure. The structure, designed to protect the stored product for a short or long period, hosts the grains awaiting movement to other locations. Grain storage occurs at three levels: producer s level, trader s level, and urban organization storage level. Storing it is necessary for the following reasons: To provide a uniform supply of food throughout the year. Grains are produced seasonally while consumption is a constant. To provide reserve for contingencies such as flood, drought, pandemics, and other calamities. To speculate a good price either in domestic or in export markets. Hence storage is fundamental to the concept of food security. What happens if grain storage is improper? The main cause of deterioration of grain quality and decrease in grain quantity is improper storage. This can occur due to: Weather changes: Changes in climatic conditions such as rain, humidity, increased dampness, moisture; heat can harm the grain quality and seed viability. Infestation: Unfavorable environmental conditions can also make the grain more vulnerable to infestation by insects, pests, and molds. Incorrect Grain Storage resulting in post-harvest losses In fact, rodents and birds often attack incorrectly stored grains. They can not only feed on the grain, but also contaminate it with their urine, droppings, and hair feathers. These problems caused due to improper storage result in post-harvest losses in the form of: Weight loss of the agricultural produce. The grain is prone to rancidity or it may undergo sprouting, over-ripening if not stored properly. There is loss in quality and market value of the produce. Furthermore, the nutritive value of the grain also decreases.


The grain is prone to rancidity or it may undergo sprouting, over-ripening if not stored properly. There is loss in quality and market value of the produce. Furthermore, the nutritive value of the grain also decreases. What are the correct post-harvest storage methods?Proper grain storage methods are the key to reducing post-harvest losses. The quantity of produce and the duration of storage are important to choose the proper storage method. Storage in bags: Storing grains in bags is convenient for short-term storage when grains are intended to be moved early. Short term storage duration requires few measures against insects. Loose storage: Large quantities of grains can be stored in loose bulk storage. Requirements for correct storage are: A good storage site: Ventilate and keep the site cool. Have a strong roof to protect from high winds and rain. Ideally, raise the site off the ground to prevent ground water soaking into the stored grains. Produce in suitable condition: Ensure that the crop going into the store is in good condition, cleaned and well dried. It is also necessary to store the grain at the right moisture content. Intake of grain is orderly and controlled: Maintain the air-tight barrier each time the storage unit is opened and closed. Quality maintenance ensured: Keep stored grains in the shade to protect them from rodents and birds. Security against theft and loss: Keep the storage area locked in order to limit access. Any loss is identifiable and accountable: Regularly inspect the store to maintain the condition of crops throughout the storage period. Adherence to these requirements helps to know the quantity stored at any given time, decrease the grain loss during storage, and quickly recognize the causal agents of losses and accordingly control them. Hermetic storage Hermetic Bags by Save Grain Bags A post-harvest storage technology, Hermetic storage protects grain by creating an oxygen-deficient and carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere that is incompatible with the survival or breeding of pests. It creates an airtight and moisture-tight barrier, preserving the agricultural products in their optimal form.


All art uses some blend of many or all of these aspects in order to be pleasing to the eye or to communicate its message. For example, Grant Wood's Fall Plowing uses a blend of color, repetition, line, shape and balance to bring his piece to life. He uses bold greens, yellows and reds, hard, flowing crop lines, and repetition of fun shapes to guide the viewer's eye over what seems to be a fairly serene scene of a freshly plowed field. To analyze the visual elements of visual arts one has to Consider the composition, colors, textures, size, space, and other visual and material attributes of the artwork The seven principles of visual arts 1. Balance refers to the visual weight of the elements of the composition. It is a sense that the painting feels stable and "feels right.". Imbalance causes a feeling of discomfort in the viewer. Balance can be achieved in 3 different ways: Symmetry, in which both sides of a composition have the same elements in the same position, as in a mirror-image, or the two sides of a face. Asymmetry, in which the composition is balanced due to the contrast of any of the elements of art. For example, a large circle on one side of a composition might be balanced by a small square on the other side Radial symmetry, in which elements are equally spaced around a central point, as in the spokes coming out of the hub of a bicycle tire. Contrast This is the difference between elements of art in a composition, such that each element is made stronger in relation to the other. When placed next to each other, contrasting elements command the viewer's attention. Areas of contrast are among the first places that a viewer's eye is drawn. Contrast can be achieved by juxtapositions of any of the elements of art. Negative Positive space is an example of contrast. Complementary colors placed side by side is an example of contrast. Notan is an example of contrast. Emphasis This is when the artist creates an area of the composition that is visually dominant and commands the viewer's attention. This is often achieved by contrast. Movement is the result of using the elements of art such that they move the viewer's eye around and within the image. A sense of movement can be created by diagonal or curvy lines, either real or implied, by edges, by the illusion of space, by repetition, by energetic mark-making.


This is often achieved by contrast. Movement is the result of using the elements of art such that they move the viewer's eye around and within the image. A sense of movement can be created by diagonal or curvy lines, either real or implied, by edges, by the illusion of space, by repetition, by energetic mark-making. Pattern is the uniform repetition of any of the elements of art or any combination thereof. Anything can be turned into a pattern through repetition. Some classic patterns are spirals, grids, weaves. For examples of different pattern types see the Artlandia Glossary of Pattern Design. A popular drawing practice is Zentangles, in which an abstract or representational outline is divided into different areas, each of which contains a unique pattern. Rhythm This is created by movement implied through the repetition of elements of art in a nonuniform but organized way. It is related to rhythm in music. Unlike pattern, which demands consistency, rhythm relies on variety. Unity Variety You want your painting to feel unified such that all the elements fit together comfortably. Too much unity creates monotony, too much variety creates chaos. You need both. Ideally, you want areas of interest in your composition along with places for your eye to rest. PAINTING Colour wheel Colour wheel a diagram used in the visual arts to represent the colours of the visible spectrum and their relationships to one another. The colours are arranged systematically into a circle, with each hue usually falling into one of three categories: 1. Primary2. Secondary 3. Intermediate. Colour gradation strip for colour contrast Start with your chosen colour at the top of the column on your palette cool blues below the cool blue column, warm reds below the warm red column and apply in a broad band on your canvas. Back to your palette, add white to your colour and mix it in the column below the first colour. Still life drawing Still Life drawing is literally creating a two dimensional image of inanimate objects. Various media are used to emphasize a skill or topic. Still Life drawings created as preliminary studies for paintings are typically pencil, pastels, or pen and ink. A still life drawing is created by placing objects in a design setting that utilizes available light and contrasts in shapes in an eye pleasing manner. The artist sketches the basic shapes first and continues to fill in details and or color until the desired outcome is achieved.


What Is Time Signature 3 4? The time signature or meter 3 4 is show in the music as a 3 above a 4. This comes before the music starts but after the clef and key signature. The 3 stands for 3 beats per measure and the 4 tells us that each beat is a quarter note. This means that the notes in each measure will add to three quarter notes. See if you can spot the three quarter note beats in this line of music. Now here it is with the beats labelled. Master Time Signatures With Our Free Mini Course Get 10 video lessons complete with worksheets and quiz to learn about simple, compound and irregular meters. How To Count In 3 4 3 4, like all meters, has a distinctive feel to it. We count 3 4 as 1..2 3 .1 2 .3 and you can see this on the music below. These three quarter-note beats are counted regardless of how those beats are divided up. Here is a piece by Chopin. It contains more complex rhythms with a variety of note lengths, however this piece would still counted with three quarter-note beat. Can you spot where each beat falls? Now here it is with the beats added. 3 4 Is A Simple, Triple Time Signature There are three broad types of time signature: simple, compound and irregular. Simple time signatures have beats that divide into two. Compound time signatures have beats that divide into three and irregular time signatures have a mixture of beats. In time signature 3 4 each beat is a quarter note and therefore can be divided into TWO eighth notes. This makes 3 4 a Simple Time Signature. It is a Triple time signature because there areThe notes below show how each quarter note beat in 3 4 time can be divided into two eight notes. Athletics and Montage Athletics is a sport that includes a number of events involving running, jumping, throwing or walking. Middle distance races. Middle distance race starts with a standing start, athletes start from an upright, standing position the crouch forward with one foot about 18 inches behind the other. The leading foot and shoulder both point forward. The upper body should not be twisted. Strategies applied by middle distance runners during a race: Pacing Stride length Recovery. Pacing rate at which an athlete runs.


The upper body should not be twisted. Strategies applied by middle distance runners during a race: Pacing Stride length Recovery. Pacing rate at which an athlete runs. An athlete knows how long it takes him or her to cover a certain distance. Stride length it is the uniform length of steps taken during running. Recovery - It is a stop, walk or slow jog made after striding. It helps an athlete to catch a breath and relax before striding again which helps in developing speed and running skills. Middle-distance running events are track races longer than sprints, up to 3000 metres. The standard middle distances are the 800 metres, 1500 metres and mile run, although the 3000 metres may also be classified as a middle-distance even MONTAGE is the production of a rapid succession of images in a motion picture to illustrate an association of idea. Photomontage. Photomontage is the process and the result of making a composite photograph by cutting, gluing, rearranging and overlapping two or more photographs into a new image. It is assembly of images that relate to each other in some way to create a single work or part of a work of art. Photomontage is an image constructed from collaged photographs. Characteristics shown in photomontage. Superimposition-combine two images to create something new. Use of pictures. Emphasis on shape. MELODY Composing melody A melody is a collection of musical tones that are grouped together as a single entity. Most compositions consist of multiple melodies working in conjunction with one another. In a rock band, the vocalist, guitarist, keyboardist, and bassist are all playing melodies on their respective instruments. The basic process of melody writing is to create a musical sequence of notes, often referred to as a line, that's interesting and pleasing to the listener. This is done by using pitch notes and rhythm beats . Melodies are most often built using scales or modes. There are a few ways to extend a melody, depending on the style of music and the desired effect. Here are a few methods that may be helpful: Repeat and vary the melody. Repeat the melody multiple times, with slight variations each time. This can create a sense of familiarity and build tension. Add a countermelody. Introduce a new melody that complements the original melody.


This can create a sense of familiarity and build tension. Add a countermelody. Introduce a new melody that complements the original melody. This can create a sense of harmony and depth. Use harmonic progression. Change the chords that the melody is played over. This can create a sense of movement and tension. Add a coda. Add a section at the end of the melody that provides a sense of closure. NETBAL Netball is a ball sport played on a rectangular court by two teams of seven players. The primary objective is to shoot a ball through the defender's goal ring while preventing the opposing team from shooting through their own goal ring. Passes in netball 1. Chest pass in Net ball. Chest pass is a way of throwing the ball to a teammate where the ball is released and received at the chest level. The pass is usually used when the teammates are not far from each other. Learning points for the chest pass. 1. Grip Spread your fingers out behind the ball to form a W formation, holding it at chest height with your elbows out in front of you. 2. Stance. Face the direction you want the ball to go in. Step forwards with your dominant foot as you begin to straighten your arms. 3. Execution of the pass. Push the ball away from your body at chest height by powerfully extending the arms forwards and flicking the wrists. Follow through with the arms, wrists, hands and fingers in the direction of the throw. Chest pass drills Dodging and marking in Netball. Dodging is a technique used to counter the marking attempts. It is applied by members of the team in control of the ball. The player being marked attempts to get free from the marker and move into space to receive a pass. It may involve changing pace and use of deceptive body actions to put the marking player off balance. Deceptive means misleading or trickiness while off-balance means not steady or stable. Intercept means block a pass or prevent it from reaching destination or to block something from happening. Body movements used by a player when dodging an opponent. Using bending or leaning movements with the body trunk to the left or right or left once or repeatedly. Sprinting off from the marker. Sprinting and stopping. Extending the left or right arm away from the opponent.


Sprinting off from the marker. Sprinting and stopping. Extending the left or right arm away from the opponent. Marking is a technique used by a team that is not in possession of the ball to prevent an opponent from receiving a pass. The intention is to obstruct passes made by the team in control of the ball. A player can mark an opponent in possession of the ball or an opponent without the ball. Marking opponent with the ball. Marking opponent without the ball. Body movements used by a player when marking an opponent. Standing in front of the player being marked. Standing beside the player being marked. Raising hands up or to the side to reach the path of the ball. Stepping forward, or sideways while avoiding any obstruction. Things to learn when dodging and marking stance. Marking a player without the ball. Establish the basic stance for marking with body weight on your toes. Take a position slightly in front of the player you intend to mark. Be on your toes, with knees slightly bent, ready to catch the ball or move in the direction of the opponent. The hands should be on the side of the body. React quickly when the opponent being marked makes any movement, move in the direction of the opponent using short steps, shuffle sideways without crossing the feet. Focus on both the ball and the player and forth from one place to another. Activity. Guided by the teacherDemonstrate Basic stance for dodging, marking, body movement for dodging and marking. Footwork in Netball. Landing techniques. In netball, the ball is played using hands. During play, the players may: Run to doge an opponent or to reach a ball. Jump to catch a high ball or rebound from the ring. Stop the running action suddenly to dodge an opponent or avoid getting to an offside position. Land on the floor or the ground as dedicated by the laws of gravity in integrated science and as guided by the law of the game. However, players need to land safely for safety and healthy living. There are two landing techniques in Netball: The double foot landing. Single foot landing. Pivoting.


Batik fabrics often include colorful, intricate, ornamental designs. What are two types of batik art? There are several different varieties of batik art. Two main types include hand-painted or drawn and stamped, block printed, or machine-printed. What is the batik method? The traditional batik method includes the drawing of a pattern on fabric, then the application of hot wax on the pattern, the dyeing of the fabric, removal of the wax, or some wax, then sometimes additional rounds of dyeing. The parts under the wax are not dyed. Other methods than the aforementioned traditional method exist. Light and Dry Crackle Effects has been formulated to create dry, cracked floors on the undersurfaces of vehicles, dioramas and vignettes. This product has been developed for the creation of scale crackle effects. On an acrylic base, use a thin coat and let dry. Descant recorder or Any other western instrumentDescant recorder, is the third-smallest instrument of the modern recorder family and is usually played as the highest voice in four-part ensembles SATB soprano, alto, tenor, bass . Recorders made today are designed after originals preserved in museums and based on historical evidence regarding dimensions, materials and pitch. Recorders come in many different sizes. The main kinds, from small to large, are: sopranino, descant soprano , treble alto , tenor and bass. Examples of western solo instruments. Instruments Playing technique Fingering chart for the G scale. Violin Bowing on the strings Guitar. Plucking the strings Trumpet in B flat Blowing air while producing a buzzing sound. Tones can be varied by pressing the valves. Xylophone Hitting the bars with a small mallet. Each piece of wood is a different length so it produces different sounds when they are hit. Piano Pressing on the keys. Playing the recorder using appropriate techniques. The following techniques are used to play descant recorder: Tonguing. Gently say tu when blowing air into the recorder. Embouchure. This is how one places their mouth on the recorder s mouthpiece to ensure that no air is lost when blowing into the instrument. Fingering. Correct placement of the fingers on the recorder. As a rule, the left hand is always at the top part of the recorder. All the holes must be tightly covered to prevent leakage of air.


Correct placement of the fingers on the recorder. As a rule, the left hand is always at the top part of the recorder. All the holes must be tightly covered to prevent leakage of air. Blowing. Blow warm air into the recorder. Blowing gently gives a good sound. Blowing too hard generates unpleasant sounds. Slurring. This is the technique of playing more than two notes in one breath. This involves only the movement of fingers while the airflow is constant. Staccato. Playing notes in a detached manner. Notes to be played staccato have a dot above or below the note. Tone quality. Listen carefully to the sound you produce when you blow into the recorder. Blowing gently and having consistent air gives a good tone. Blend and balance. Being able to listen to what the other in an ensemble are playing helps to blend and create a balanced sound. Interpret performance directions when playing the descant recorder. You should be able to play melodies on the descant recorder while observing the following directions: a. Repeat. Repeat signs are two dots that are placed before or after a double bar line. Whey they are placed after a double bar line, it means it is the start of the repeat. However, when they are placed before a double line, it means the end of repeat. B. 1st and 2nd ending The two lines above the staff mean that one will avoid playing 1 notes when repeating. This applies where there is a repeat and the last part of the melody is different from the first one. C. Da capo al fine It is often abbreviated as D.C al Fine. It means one goes back to the beginning of the piece and plays to the point written. D. Dal segno al fine. It is often abbreviated as D.S al fine. It means you go back to a point in the piece of music with the sign and play or sing to the bar marked Fine end then stop. E. Accent. The note with sign is played with emphasis. F. Fermata. This sign means that you can hold the note a little longer that its given time value or number of counts. G. Dynamics. This refers to how quietly or loudly a piece of music should be played. Italian terms are used to indicate dynamics in the piece of music. Dynamics English meaning.


This refers to how quietly or loudly a piece of music should be played. Italian terms are used to indicate dynamics in the piece of music. Dynamics English meaning. Pianissimo pp Very soft Piano p Soft Mezzo piano mp Moderately soft Mezzo forte mf Moderately wide. Forte f Loud. Fortissimo ff Very loud. H. Tempo. This term is used to refer to how fast or slow a piece of music can be played. Italina terms are used to indicate what tempo the music is played Tempo terms English meaning. Andante At a walking pace 73-77 beats per minute Allegro Fast 109-132 beats per minute Adagio Slow ss-65 beats per minute Lento Slowly 40-45 beats per minute VerseVerse is writing arranged in lines which have rhythm and which often rhyme at the end. ... A slim volume of verse. I have been moved to write a few lines of verse. Synonyms: poetry, poems, lyrics, rhyme More Synonyms of verse Composing a verse Start by committing your main ideas to paper, then go back and refine them later. Draw on devices like simile and metaphor to tell your story in a way that's engaging to the listener. Don't just explain the action give life to it through concrete images and unexpected turns of phrase. VOLLEYBAL Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are separated by a net. Each team tries to score points by grounding a ball on the other team's Overarm and Jump serve in Volley. Over arm serve. Over arm serve is where a player tosses the ball with one hand and strikes it in the air above their head with the other hand so that it crosses the net and lands into the opponents side. Safety instructions. Ensure you perform thorough warm up activities. Avoid congestion by maintaining a safe distance from your peers. Follow instructions. Jump serve in Volleyball. This is a type of serve where the serving player increases power and serve height by jumping to hit the ball when serving in volleyball. Minor Games and basic rules. Minor games are small sided games that help you practice skills learnt in volleyball while applying the rules of the games. Safety precaution. Never fist hit the ball as you could hit someone s face. Do not swing on the post.


Safety precaution. Never fist hit the ball as you could hit someone s face. Do not swing on the post. Do not go under the net, always walk around the nets. Do not throw the ball over the net, roll it under the net. Diagram of human figures playing Volley. Student activities monitored and instructed by the teacher Draw human figures of players serving or volleying a ball. C Serve the ball using the jump serve over a net. D Perform the volley for skill acquisition, KENYAN FOLK DANCE Classifying Kenyan folk dance African folk songs are classified according to the following. Their origin. Occasion. Function. Type. A. Community of origin. -. African songs can be classified according to their origin. -. The origin in this case means the community they are drawn from. -. Therefore, songs belong to a particular community such as luhya, luo, gikuyu, gusii. Kuria, Kamba, iteso, giriama, digo, Pokomo, gabra, nandi, Kipsigis, Marakwet, pokot, turkana and taita. -. These songs are passed on by oral tradition from one generation to the next. -. The music is related to the culture of a particular or region. For example, you can identify the culture od a particular community or region by their dressing, languageused, musical instruments, props, body adornments, ornaments, body movements, vocal embellishments used to enrich music, style of sing and tone among others. B. Occasion. -. African folk songs can also be categorized according to occasions they are performed. -. For example: - naming folk songs. -. Initiation folk songs. -. Marriage folk songs. -. War folk songs. -. Funeral folk songs. -. Worship folk songs among others. C. Function. Folk songs belong to the people with a common culture. Therefore, folk songs keep people connected to their cultures and heritage. They give history of the people and their culture. Folk songs usually pass important information, stories, messages and history from generation to generation. Folk songs are used to express emotions. They narrate stories of joy and sorrows in the simplest way. Folk songs are used as a means of unifying the community members when they come together to sing.


Folk songs are used to express emotions. They narrate stories of joy and sorrows in the simplest way. Folk songs are used as a means of unifying the community members when they come together to sing. This also creates positive outcomes or consequences if they do not watch their actions and intention. Some of the folk songs are purely for entertainment, enjoyment by performers and the audience. D. Type. African folk songs can also be classified according to the type such as: Lullabies. Dirges. Love songs. Protest songs. Children s songs among others. Creating improvised implements to use in performance of Folkdance songs. Folk dances are performed by different participants who plays different roles as follows: Soloist-person who leads the rest of the participants in singing the melodies and dancing during the performance of the dance. Response group-they provide an answer to the soloist during the dance. Instrumentalist-plays instruments to accompany a dance. Dancers- makes dance movements and formation in response to the songs and instruments. Along side the participants, folk song dances also require other implements so help in identifying different cultures and diversities such as costumes, ornaments, body adornments, body make ups, props etc. During a folk-dance performance, participants wear specially designed cloths, hides or skins called costumes. Costumes are made using locally available materials such as sisal fibre, sisal string, comb and pair of scissors. The participants also decorate their bodies using different paints to make patterns. This is called body adornments. Body adornments are made using the following materials: Water paints. Chalk powder. Objects or items of different shapes and sizes like bottle tops, water bottles, combs, folk and other design shaped objects. Dancers also use beads, necklaces, bracelets and anklets during the dance performance. These are called ornaments. Body ornaments are made using locally available materials such as: Pieces of thread. Pair of scissors. Grains such as beans, maize soaked in water to make them soft A needle. The costumes, body adornments and ornaments vary from one community to another expressing different cultures in Kenya. The following are social importance of songs to the pastoralists: Songs they sing accompany their journey to facilitate movements.


Grains such as beans, maize soaked in water to make them soft A needle. The costumes, body adornments and ornaments vary from one community to another expressing different cultures in Kenya. The following are social importance of songs to the pastoralists: Songs they sing accompany their journey to facilitate movements. They songs are sung during their herding sessions to take away boredom. They are a source of unity and collaboration among the community members. They educate on the importance of the animals and other resources. They tell the history of the community. General uses of Folk songs. As a source of entertainment. As a source of cultural and national unity. In teaching subjects such as history, literature and geography among others. To educate. To rebuke. To advise. To worship. To encourage. To promote culture. To give moral teachings. Economic importance of the songs. Economic importance or economic significance of something refers to the monetary or trade value of an item. Songs have economic importance to individuals, the cultural community and even the country. General these are the economic importance of folk songs: Performers can earn money or income by performing folk songs at private parties. Folk song musicians also earn a living by offering singing lessons. Some musicians are employed as singers or trainers of folk songs by some institutions such as cultural centres, universities and schools among others. Folk songs musicians also earn the country foreign exchange when they perform outside the country. Folk musicians also earn the country revenue when they pay taxes. Folk musicians can be independent artists by recording and selling their music. Indigenous Kenyan craft Baketry Kenya's artistic heritage also includes a rich tradition of traditional crafts, such as beadwork, woodcarving, pottery, and basket weaving. These crafts have been passed down through generations and are often used for practical purposes as well as for ceremonial and decorative purposes basketry items made using coil techniques This method is widely used throughout the world in making strong, fairly rigid objects for daily use: partitions for dwellings, baskets to be carried on the back, cages, and fish traps with a Mediterranean variety composed of three layers of standards and a knotted thread . Swimming Breast stroke in swimming.


Indigenous Kenyan craft Baketry Kenya's artistic heritage also includes a rich tradition of traditional crafts, such as beadwork, woodcarving, pottery, and basket weaving. These crafts have been passed down through generations and are often used for practical purposes as well as for ceremonial and decorative purposes basketry items made using coil techniques This method is widely used throughout the world in making strong, fairly rigid objects for daily use: partitions for dwellings, baskets to be carried on the back, cages, and fish traps with a Mediterranean variety composed of three layers of standards and a knotted thread . Swimming Breast stroke in swimming. Breast stroke is a stroke in which the arms are pushed forward and then swept back in a circular movement, while the legs are tucked in towards the bod and then kicked out in a sideways and backward movement. Description of the prone body position. The body lies in a horizontal position in the water with the head in line, with the spine and the face in the water, eyes looking down. The arms are extended forward and the legs are held close together, toes pointed. The breast stroke begins with a forceful push from the poolside in order to generate some propulsion, which results in a glide. The body moves in a smooth, continuous and effortless motion while lying on the stomach and glides in a horizontal position. From the glide phase, the propulsive arm action takes place and then the leg action as the arms recover. The body is then in a streamlined glide for a short moment in each before the next stroke begins. Glide. For effective gliding in the water, the body should be well streamlined. This can be affected by the underwater recovery movements, as the propulsive force remain still and streamlined. For example, as the legs kick to provide propulsion, the arms should be extended forward to create the ideal streamlined body position at the front. Similarly, as the arms pull around, the legs should be in the glide phase to create the same streamlined body position at the back. Gliding helps to make the breast stroke movement smooth and reduces the effort required by the arms to move forward, resulting on a more efficient swimming technique. It is important to cultivate a glide so that the proper sequence of arms-breath-leg - glide can be established. The breast stroke starts with the arm pull, breathe, then the kick and finally the glide in a streamlined position. Prone body postion and glide.


It is important to cultivate a glide so that the proper sequence of arms-breath-leg - glide can be established. The breast stroke starts with the arm pull, breathe, then the kick and finally the glide in a streamlined position. Prone body postion and glide. Stand waist-deep in water, with knees bent or feet flat against the side of the pool. You can hold onto the side of the pool with one hand for support. Breathe in and put your face in the water. Puch off the wall and glide to the prone body position. Lie flat, head facing down with your body in line with the water surface. Keep your face down and arms extended forward. Your eyes should look downwards and slightly forward to avoid straining the neck. Keep your shoulders, hips and legs horizontal as possible, and keep your hips as close as possible to the surface. Do not let your hips drop in the water. Stretch your legs behind with toes pointed but slope your body slightly to allow the legs to stay beneath the water. Keep your neck and shoulders as relaxed as possible to aid the arm action and reduce strain. Keep your body straight and streamlined to make swimming easier and enhance speed. The head movement should be kept to a minimum, and the shoulder should remain level throughout the stroke. Arm action. The arm pull technique is needed to assist the leg movement and also to keep the breast stroke streamlined and efficient. Cath phase. I. Begin with the glide position, arms extended out in front of you, fingers and hands together, palms facing downwards. Ii. Pitch your hand outwards and downwards to an angle of about 45 degrees at the start of the catch phase. Iii. Pull your arms outwards and downwards until they are appropriately shoulderwidth apart. Your elbows should begin to bend, and your shoulders to roll inwards at the end of the catch phase. Propulsive phase. Sweep your arms downwards and inwards, and let the hands pull to their deepest point. The elbows bend to 900 and remain high. At the end of the down sweep, your hands, your hands should sweep inwards and slightly upwards. The elbow should tuck into the side as you pull your hand inwards towards the chest and the chin. Recovery phase. Your hands should recover by stretching forward in a streamlined position.


The elbow should tuck into the side as you pull your hand inwards towards the chest and the chin. Recovery phase. Your hands should recover by stretching forward in a streamlined position. They should recover under, on, or over the water surface ready to restart the arm action. Leg action. The legs are the powerhouse of the breast stroke, and the full leg kick should be a simultaneous and flowing action, resulting in a powerful boost that propels the whole stroke. I. Start with your legs straight and together. Ii. Bend your knees and bring the heels towards your seat with the sole of the feet facing outwards for the frog kick . Iii. Sweep the legs outwards and download in a flowing circular path. The heels and soles of your feet should drive around and back to provide power and propulsion to the stroke. Iv. Squeeze legs together to come back together to the starting streamlined position with the toes pointed. Breathing action. -. Breast stroke breathing occurs naturally as the breast technique has a body lift, which gives the ideal breathing point for each stroke. Breathing in takes place every time your arms pull back to all the body to lift and the head to rise. Lift your shoulders to bring your face out of the water to breath. Don t raise your head, let the head naturally rise with the shoulders so your chin is resting just above the water. Inhale through your mouth before letting your shoulder drop as you sweep with your arms. Breath out as your legs kick back and extend your arms forward. The head returns to the water to exhale as the arms stretch forward to begin their recovery phase. Timing. A well-executed breast stroke timing sequence is key to achieving a smooth and efficient swimming stroke as you will effortlessly glide through the water. A. Try to time your arm action and leg kick so there is always something propelling you through water. B. The arms will be propulsive while the legs recover and the legs propulsive while the arms recover. C. To coordinate the leg kick, the arm strokes, and the breathing, think of the phrase pull, breath, kick, glide d. As your arms complete the power phase, take a breath, and then draw your feet toward the hips. E. When your arms are about halfway through the recovery phase, begin the leg action.


B. The arms will be propulsive while the legs recover and the legs propulsive while the arms recover.c. To coordinate the leg kick, the arm strokes, and the breathing, think of the phrase pull, breath, kick, glide d. As your arms complete the power phase, take a breath, and then draw your feet toward the hips.e. When your arms are about halfway through the recovery phase, begin the leg action.f. Time the arm strokes and kick so that the arms and legs are both at their full length as the kick finishes.g. Rest in the phase position as your body glides through the water. Then the glide begins to slow down, it is time to start another stroke. Water treading To maintain an upright position in deep water by moving the feet with a walking movement and the hands with a downward circular motion.


Is the most advanced creature to appear on earthImportance of Fossil Records. Fossils refer to the preserved remains of plants and animals that are found beneath the surface of the earth. Fossil records help to understand how human beings evolved, lived, adapted and changed their physical appearance in the past. Fossil records have the following importance:Provide past evidence on how plants and animals adapted to their environment. Helps to establish evolutionary relationship between organisms and their ancestors. Fossil records help to establish the time period in which organisms lived. Fossil records help archeologists and other natural scientists to place important events and species in the appropriate historical and geographical era. Fossil records of humans help us to understand the social, political and economic life of man over years. They give us information on the culture of humans, clothing, food, and beliefs in the past. Fossil records give us information on the economic activities of man such as the animals they hunted, crops they cultivated, fishing among others. Fossil records give us information on the type and uses of tools and other materials used by humans in farming, hunting, war or religious activities over the years. They provide evidence of Africa being the cradle of humanity. Locations of human remains discovered in Africa. Prehistoric sites are places where man s remains which are evident of his past existence were found. The oldest known human remains in Africa were discovered in Ethiopia, dating back to around 200,000 years ago. The following are a few examples of where and when pre-historic human remains have been discovered in Africa. Other places are:Fort Ternan Kenya where Ramapithecus or Kenyapithecus were found. Changes that took places in humans as a result of evolution. Evolution of human beings has been a continuous process resulting from various changes and adaptations. These changes are characterized in their teeth, arms, body shape, brain size, structure of their legs and shape of their head. These changes were important for them to adapt to new environmental conditions for survival. Human beings evolved to walk on two legs, freeing their hands for tool use and enhancing mobility. Overtime, the human brain had grown, leading to advanced cognitive abilities. They developed the ability to make and use tools. Humans developed language, enabling communication. Evolution influenced teeth, adapting them to a diverse diet including plants and animals. Humans evolved complex social structures, forming family units and communities.


Humans developed language, enabling communication. Evolution influenced teeth, adapting them to a diverse diet including plants and animals. Humans evolved complex social structures, forming family units and communities. Humans have had reduced hair on the bodies. 1.2 Early civilization. Places of origin of early visitors to the East Africa coast. East Africa was visited by visitors from Europe and Asia. They included the following:ArabsPortuguese. Indian. Persians. Chinese. Greek. Egyptians. Phoenicians. Romans. Syrians. Swahili civilization along the East African Coast. The east African coastline is a long stretch made up of Somali, Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique. Swahili civilization developed from the interactions between local bantu speaking communities and the Arab traders who visited the East African Coast. They practiced a blend of Islam and traditional African religions. They changed the culture, religions, economic and even social way of life. They came up with new clothing designs to blend with different cultures. This includes Kanga, kanzu and taqiyah. They also introduced special Swahili foods such as biryani, pilau, mahamri among others. Swahili people were known for their skills in trading, fishing and seafaring. They established city-states such as Kilwa, Mombasa and Zanzibar which later become centres of trade. They traded their goods such as gold, ivory and slaves. They built impressive religious structures such as mosques and houses made from makuti, coral stones and lime. The Swahili people constructed dhows which were small wooden boats that helped them navigate along the East African Coast of the Indian Ocean. They also had networks of trade routes that connected them to other parts of Africa and the Middle East. Over time, European powers established colonies in East Africa. They abolished the slave trade, which had a significant source of wealth for the Swahili city-state. However, the Swahili people and their culture still thrive along the East African Coast to date. The Swahili language is spoken by people of Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and even Democratic Republic of Congo. Factors that led to the growth of East Africa city-states. Bantu migration and arrival of the Arabs. Migration of Bantu speaking people to the east African coast where they interacted with the Arabs. Bantus practiced agriculture while Arabs were traders. This helped in the establishment of trading centres that grew into city-states. Trade.


Bantus practiced agriculture while Arabs were traders. This helped in the establishment of trading centres that grew into city-states. Trade. There were trading activities between the East Africa merchants and traders from India, China, Persia and Arabia. The East African cities exported agricultural products and slaves. Monsoon winds. Facilitated the movement of vessels of traders to travel from one coast to another. Rise of Islam. Conversion of Islam linked Swahili states to massive trade networks that crossed the coastal area. Good deep natural harbours. The natural harbours along the coast ensured the safe docking of vessels. Swahili language and culture. City-states are considered the product of Swahili language and cultural heritage. Best practices of early civilization that contributed to the development of the modern world. Ancient Egypt was the beginning o building designs and construction of permanent buildings we have today. The hieroglyphics form of writing in Egypt used to keep records developed into modern writing and education. Knowledge of planning and predicting of seasons based on the calendar started in the early civilisation. Today, it has been developed further to include weather forecasting in predicting accurate changes in weather. Industrial development in the ancient Kingdom was based on simple skills. Copper and tin were used in ancient Egypt to make items. Today, most of the industries use metals and alloys to make construction and infrastructural equipment. The modern irrigation technology borrows a lot from the ancient irrigation techniques such as shadoof irrigation. This has been applied in the agricultural sector. Tools such as jembes or hoes used in farming today were developed in the ancient civilisation. The political structure of the modern government resembles the government structure adopted in early civilisation. The current civilization owes its development to the ancient based on the following reasons:1.3 Population growth in Africa. Population growth is determined to carrying out a national census and comparing the outcome with the previous census outcome. Population growth can either be positive or negative. Positive population growth results when the birth rates and immigration rates are higher than death rates and emigration rates. This results in rapid population growth. Negative population growth rate occurs when there are some people leaving a population through death or emigration as compared to those joining it through birth and immigration. This results in slow population growth. Population growth is the change of population size in a region over a period of time. Several factors influence population growth. These include:Migration. High birth rate. Reduced death rate etc.


These include:Migration. High birth rate. Reduced death rate etc. Population census data among countries in Africa, is counted and analysed to guide the government in planning and making decisions that affect lives of many people. Causes of Population growth in Africa. Population growth in Africa is influence by various causes and has both positive and negative effects. Population growth in Africa is caused by:High fertility rates-African countries have high birth rates due to cultural, social and economic factors such as early marriages, limited access to contraceptives and traditional beliefs that value large families. Declining mortality rates-improved healthcare, access to clean water and advancement in medical technology have led to lower infant and child mortality rates. Urbanization-rapid urbanization in Africa has led to increased migration from rural areas to cities in search of better opportunities. This contributes to growth of population. Lack of education-lack of education limits individual understanding of the family planning methods and contraceptives which results in high birth rates. Natural calamities- natural calamities such as drought and famine results in high deaths in Africa. This slows down the rate of population growth. Effects of population growth in Africa. Over-exploitation of resources. Unemployment and poverty due to few employment opportunities. Shortage of social amenities. Increased innovation. Development of urban centres due to increased population. Food insecurity. Increased crime rates. Ready markets for goods and services. Increase in supply of human labour. Types of Migration in Africa. Deforestation to provide human settlement. Strain on limited resources such as land, water and food and in infrastructure and services such as housing, transportation and sanitation. Loss of culture and diminishing of trust among citizens. Rise in dependency ratio which increases the economic pressure on the work force. Migration refers to the movement of people from one place to another. The place that people move from is called the place of origin. The place people move to is called the place of destination. People migrate due to different reasons. There are different types of migration as follows: Internal migration-this is the movement of people within a country. Internal migration has the following types of migration as well. Rural to urban migration-migration involving people moving from rural areas to urban area. Urban to Rural migration-involve moving from urban areas to rural areas. Rural to rural migration-involves moving rural areas to other rural areas. Urban to urban migration-involves moving from one urban centre to another. External migration- migration of people from their country to other countries.


Rural to rural migration-involves moving rural areas to other rural areas. Urban to urban migration-involves moving from one urban centre to another. External migration- migration of people from their country to other countries. Effects of migration in Africa. Development of urban centres due to increase in population. Congestion of urban areas dur to increase in the population. Migration results in cultural diversity. Growth of slums due to poor living conditions. Pressure on public services such as schools, housing and healthcare. Separation of families. Money sent to home countries in form of remittances boost the local economy. Results in rural areas having more elderly people as the younger ones migrate in search of a better life. Demographic trends in Kenya. Kenya s demographic trend have been changing over the years. Population growth-Kenya s population has been growing steadily over the years, and it is currently estimated to around 50m people. Urbanization-more and more Kenyans are moving from rural areas to urban centers in search of better opportunities. This has led to the growth of cities like Nairobi, Mombasa and Kisumu. Age structure-Kenya has a relatively young population, with large proportion of people under age of 30. This has implication for education, employment and social services. Ethic diversity-Kenya is the home to many different ethic groups, each with its own language and culture. This diversity can be a source of strength, nut also present challenges in terms of national unity. Health and mortality- Kenya had made significant progress in improving health outcomes recently, but challenges remain. Infant mortality rates are still high and HIV AIDS continues to be a major public concern. STRAND 2 PEOPLE AND RELATIONSHIPS. 2.1 Building Self-esteem. Building self-esteem refers to the process of developing a positive perception and belief in one s own worth and abilities. It involves recognizing and appreciating one s strengths, accomplishment and unique qualities, while accepting and learning from mistakes and setbacks. Factors that influence self-esteem in day-to-day life. There are many factors that can influence a persons self-esteem in day-to-day life. The factors include:Positive interactions such as showing empathy and acts of kindness can boost our selfesteem while negative interaction can lower it. Accomplishing personal goals or achieving success in different areas of life can increase our self-esteem. Negative body image can lead to low self-esteem while positive body image can boost it.


The factors include:Positive interactions such as showing empathy and acts of kindness can boost our selfesteem while negative interaction can lower it. Accomplishing personal goals or achieving success in different areas of life can increase our self-esteem. Negative body image can lead to low self-esteem while positive body image can boost it. Supportive environment can boost our self-esteem while a negative environment can lower it. Unrealistic beaty standards and expectations can lead to low self-esteem. Ways of building a healthy self-esteem for promotion of social cohesion. A healthy self-esteem is important in promoting social cohesion. It helps to enhance positive interactions and respect for others. We can build a healthy self-esteem by:Believing in yourself and embracing your strengths and weaknesses. Celebrating successes and achievements. Maintaining a positive attitude. Being king to yourself by doing things you enjoy, practising positive self-talk among others. Promoting body positivity and unhealthy body image. Being assertive. Healthy esteem in social interactions. Healthy esteem involves demonstrating confidence, self-worth and self-acceptance in our thoughts, behaviours and interaction with others. We can exhibit show a healthy self-esteem by; Being confident in ourselves. Setting goals and working towards achieving them. Seeking support or guidance when faced with challenges. Handling criticism positively. Practising self-care such as maintaining personal hygiene and doing physical exercise. Values that enhance healthy self-esteem in day-to-day life. Integrity. Responsibility. Patience. Love. Kindness. Respect. 2.2 Emotional care. Emotional care refers to one s well being and the ability to cope with challenges in life and recognise our own feelings and the emotions of those around us. Ways of dealing with difficult emotions in daily life. Difficult emotions refer to feelings that are challenging to manage. They include:Anger. Sadness. Fear. Loneliness. Guilt. Anxiety. Shame. Difficult emotions can be overwhelming and may lead to distress, elf criticism and reduced self-esteem. We should manage difficult emotions in a healthy manner that I not harmful to ourself and others. We can deal with difficult emotions by:Recognizing and accepting that difficult emotions are a natural part of the human experience. Identifying the emotions. Seeking support from others. Finding what triggered the emotions. Engaging in physical activities. Guiding and counselling. Real life situations that require emotional intelligence in day-to-day interactions.


Engaging in physical activities. Guiding and counselling. Real life situations that require emotional intelligence in day-to-day interactions. Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognise, understand and manage our own emotions as well as the emotions of others. Rel-life situations that require emotional intelligence in day-to-day interactions can be encountered in various environments such as:School environment. Family environment. Social environment. Emotional intelligence is important because:It helps individuals make better decisions. It helps one to manage emotions. It helps to maintain healthy relationships with others. You can be described as having emotional intelligence if you show the following qualities:Self-awareness-recognise and understand one s emotions, strengths and weaknesses. Self-regulation -ability to control one s emotions, stay calm under pressure and in challenging situations. Self-motivation -involves staying focuses, setting goals and maintaining a positive attitude, especially when faced with challenges. Empathy -involves understanding and appreciating the feelings of others and responding with compassion and support. Social skills -ability to build and maintain healthy relationships. It also involves effectively communicating with others. Exhibiting emotional intelligence. We can exhibit emotional intelligence by:Recognizing and understanding your own emotions. Learn to manage and control your emotions. Identify our emotional triggers. Finding positive ways of coping with stress and difficult emotions. Journaling the emotions experience. Understanding and appreciating the feelings of others. 2.3 Resilience. Resilience is the ability to bounce back and recover from adversity, challenges or stressful situations. It is the ability to cope with challenges while maintaining a positive mindset. Resilient individuals are able to persevere in the face of setbacks, learn from failures and fin solutions to problems. Situations thar require resilience in day-to-day life. Resilience is important because it helps to approach challenges with a positive attitude. Circumstances that require resilience include:Dealing with chronic or terminal illness. Overcoming grief after loss of a loved one. Failure. Losses in business. Practising a new skill. Rejection or discrimination. Characteristics of a resilient person. The following are characteristics of a resilient person. Problem solver-willing to find solutions for the challenges they are facing. Positive attitude-maintains a positive mindset even when faced with challenges. They believe that they can overcome the challenges they face. Flexible-they can easily adopt to changing circumstances. They are open to new ideas and can change.


They believe that they can overcome the challenges they face. Flexible-they can easily adopt to changing circumstances. They are open to new ideas and can change. Perseverance-not giving up easily, even when things get tough. It involves staying committed to one s goals and working hard to achieve them. Emotionally intelligent-they are able to recognise, understand and manage their emotions when faced with challenges. Confident-believes in themselves and their abilities. This helps them stay motivated and confident, even when faced with challenges. Growth attitude resilient people view challenges as opportunities for growth and learning. Self-awareness resilient people understand their emotions, strengths and weakness. Good communicator resilient individuals often possess good communication skills, which enable them to express their needs, thoughts and emotions effectively. Accepting a resilient person accepts reality and face challenges head-on, instead of avoiding them. Values that enhance effectiveness in resilience in life. Courage -resilient people show courage by tackling challenges, risks and persisting even when faced with setbacks. Patience-resilient people show patience by thinking long-term, setting achievable goals and staying positive even when faced challenges. Integrity -resilient individuals show integrity by staying true to their values and acting ethically in tough situations. Humility-resilient individuals display humility by seeking help when needed. Gratitude -resilient individuals express gratitude by focusing on the positive aspects of their lives and showing appreciation, regardless of the circumstances. Ways of Building Resilience in different situations. Knowing when to ask for help. Developing a positive mindset. Embracing change. Building your self-esteem. Managing stress positively. Improving your problem-solving skills and coping strategies. 2.4 Socio-Cultural diversity and inclusion. Socio-cultural diversity refers to social, cultural, racial and ethnic backgrounds that exists in different communities. It can be seen the way people dress, the food they eat, languages they speak, the festivals they celebrate and the social interactions they engage in. Socio-cultural diversity refers to social and cultural characteristics that exist among people. It includes differences in aspects such as ethnicity, nationality, language, religion, gender, age and socio-economic status. Inclusion refers to the practice of giving people from diverse background equal access to opportunities without discrimination or exclusion based on factors such as race, gender, beliefs or ability.


Socio-cultural diversity refers to social and cultural characteristics that exist among people. It includes differences in aspects such as ethnicity, nationality, language, religion, gender, age and socio-economic status. Inclusion refers to the practice of giving people from diverse background equal access to opportunities without discrimination or exclusion based on factors such as race, gender, beliefs or ability. Ways of celebrating various socio-cultural diversity in the community. We can celebrate cultural diversity by:Participating in music and drama festivals which represents various cultures. Celebrating Utamaduni day. Organizing and participating in cultural festivals. Encouraging intermarriages between people from different races and ethnic communities. Interacting freely with people from different religious, race, ethnic communities among others. Cooking and eating dishes from different cultures. Promoting respect for socio-cultural and inclusion in society. We can promote respect for social-cultural diversity and inclusion in he following ways:Learning about different cultures. Participating in cultural events of other communities. Participating in the Kenya Music and Drama Festivals. Creating awareness about socio-cultural diversity and inclusion. Preserving cultural artefacts in museums and cultural centres. Respecting and celebrating various socio-cultural diversities. 2.5 Building healthy relationships. Relations refers to connections between individuals. Engaging in healthy relationships in day-to-day. Ways of building health relationship include:Effective communication. Empathy. Respect. Trust. Resolving conflicts. Building healthy relationships for sustainable lifestyle. Tips for building healthy relationships for sustainable lifestyles. Shared values. Communication. Educate and inspire. Shared activities. Volunteer together. We can build healthy relationships which will enable us to support healthy lifestyles by engaging in activities such as:Planting trees. Engaging in physical exercises. Engaging in business enterprises. Cleaning waste in the community. Signs that indicate unhealthy relationship. Poor communication. Lack of trust. Disrespectful behaviour. Physical abuse. Emotional abuse. Repeated patterns of conflict. Characteristics of an unhealthy relationships. Unhealthy relationships often involve difficulties in effectively expressing needs and feelings. Unhealthy relationships involve dishonesty which results in lack of trust. Unhealthy relationships can exhibit disrespect through constant criticism. Unhealthy relationships involve jealous. Values that enhance healthy relationships in life. Trust-allows people to feel safe, protected and connected. Respect -promotes consideration in relationships. Unity -involves a sense of togetherness, shared goals and support for each other. This strengthens the bond in a relationship.


Respect -promotes consideration in relationships. Unity -involves a sense of togetherness, shared goals and support for each other. This strengthens the bond in a relationship. Gratitude -can improve relationship by enhancing a positive outlook and appreciation for others. Love -involves care, respect and affection which creates a nurturing and positive environment that contributes to emotional wellbeing in relationships. Empathy - -allows people to understand and share their feelings which enhances understanding in relationships. 2.6 Peaceful Conflict resolution. Conflict is a disagreement or argument between individuals or groups of people. It can arise to differences in opinion, interest or belief. Situations that may lead to conflict in a family. Poor communication -leads to misunderstandings and disagreements. Competition such as sibling rivalry. Parental comparison between siblings. Unequal distribution of house chores. Differences in valueStressCharacteristics of a peaceful family. Provides support, love and care for its members. Maintains open and honest communication, allowing each member to express their thoughts, feelings and concerns without fear of judgment. Spends quality time together and engages in activities that strengthens their bond. Family members shows respect towards each other, creating an environment where each person feels important and valued. They have conflict resolution mechanism or strategies, allowing them to address disagreements and challenges in a healthy. Family members provide emotional support, celebrate accomplishments and offer encouragement during tough times. Non-violent ways of solving family conflict. Non-violent methods of resolving conflict are approaches and strategies that aim to address disagreements and disputes without resorting to physical violence or harm. Some of the non-violent methods of resolving family conflict include:Negotiation- family members should discuss and find a solution that meets everyone s needs. Problem-solving- involves willingness to identify the issue that resulted in the conflict and solving them. Both parties should find lasting solution to the problem. Mediation-involves a neutral third party to help in communication and amicable solutions. Apologizing -family members should apologise for harmful actions and words. Forgiveness - family members should forgive each other to promote peace. Importance of resolving family conflicts peacefully. Maintains healthy and positive relationship. Sets a positive example for the family. Reduces stress and tension within the family. Promotes understanding and empathy among family members. STRAND 3 COMMUNITY SERVICE LEARNING. 3.1 Community Service-Learning Project. A community service project refers to a voluntary initiative undertaken to solve a specific need or improve the well-being of the community.