Kino threaded his way around the edge of the city and turned north, north by the stars, and found the rutted sandy road that led through the brushy country towards Loreto, where the miraculous Virgin has her station. Kino could feel the blown sand against his ankles and he was glad, for he knew there would be no tracks. The little light from the stars made out for him the narrow road through the brushy country. And Kino could hear the pad of Juana's feet behind him. He went quickly and quietly, and Juana trotted behind him to keep up. Some ancient thing stirred in Kino. Through his fear of dark and the devils that haunt the night, there came a rush of exhilaration; some animal thing was moving in him so that he was cautious and wary and dangerous; some ancient thing out of the past of his people was alive in him. The wind was at his back and the stars guided him. The wind cried and whisked in the brush, and the family went on monotonously, hour after hour. They passed no one and saw no one. At last, to their right, the waning moon arose, and when it came up the wind died down, and the land was still. Now they could see the little road ahead of them, deep cut with sand-drifted wheel tracks. With the wind gone there would be footprints, but they were a good distance from the town and perhaps their tracks might not be noticed. Kino walked carefully in a wheel-rut, and Juana followed in his path. One big cart, going to the town in the morning, could wipe out every trace of their passage. All night they walked and never changed their pace. Once Coyotito awakened, and Juana shifted him in front of her and soothed him until he went to sleep again. And the evils of the night were about them. The coyotes cried and laughed in the brush, and the owls screeched and hissed over their heads. And once some large animal lumbered away, crackling the undergrowth as it went. And Kino gripped the handle of the big working knife and took a sense of protection from it. The music of the pearl was triumphant in Kino's head, and the quiet melody of the family underlay it, and they wove themselves into the soft padding of sandalled feet in the dust.


The coyotes cried and laughed in the brush, and the owls screeched and hissed over their heads. And once some large animal lumbered away, crackling the undergrowth as it went. And Kino gripped the handle of the big working knife and took a sense of protection from it. The music of the pearl was triumphant in Kino's head, and the quiet melody of the family underlay it, and they wove themselves into the soft padding of sandalled feet in the dust. All night they walked, and in the first dawn Kino searched the roadside for a covert to lie in during the day. He found his place near to the road, a little clearing where deer might have lain, and it was curtained thickly with the dry brittle trees that lined the road. And when Juana had seated herself and had settled to nurse the baby, Kino went back to the road. He broke a branch and carefully swept the footprints where they had turned from the roadway. And then, in the first light, he heard the creak of a wagon, and he crouched beside the road and watched a heavy two-wheeled cart go by, drawn by slouching oxen. And when it had passed out of sight, he went back to the roadway and looked at the rutand found that the footprints weregone. And again he swept out his traces and went back to Juana. She gave him the soft corn-cakes Apolonia had packed for them, and after a while she slept a little. But Kino sat on the ground and stared at the earth in front of him. He watched the ants moving, a little column of them near to his foot, and he put his foot in their path. Then the column climbed over his instep and continued on itsway, and Kino left his foot there and watched them move over it. The sun arose hotly. They were not near the Gulf now, and the air was dry and hot so that the brush cricked with heat and a good resinous smell came from it. And when Juana awakened, when the sun was high, Kino told her things she knew already. "Beware of that kind of tree there," he said, pointing. ". Do not touch it, for if you do and then touch your eyes, it will blind you. And beware of the tree that bleeds. See, that one over there.


"Do not touch it, for if you do and then touch your eyes, it will blind you. And beware of the tree that bleeds. See, that one over there. For if you break it the red blood will flow from it, and it is evil luck.". And she nodded and smiled a little at him, for she knew these things. "Will they follow us?". She asked. ". Do you think they will try to find us?""They will try," said Kino. ". Whoever finds us will take the pearl. Oh, they will try. "And Juana said: "Perhaps the dealers were right and the pearl has no value. Perhaps this has all been an illusion. "Kino reached into his clothes and brought out the pearl. He let the sun play on it until it burned in his eyes. ". No," he said, "they would not have tried to steal it if it had been valueless. ""Do you know who attacked you? Was it the dealers?""I do not know," he said. ". I didn't see them. "He looked into his pearl to find his vision. ". When we sell it at last, I will have a rifle," he said, and he looked into the shining surface for his rifle, but he saw only a huddled dark body on the ground with shining blood dripping from its throat. And he said quickly: "We will be married in a great church.". And in the pearl he saw Juana with her beaten face crawling home through the night. ". Our son must learn to read," he said frantically. And there in the pearl Coyotito's face, thick and feverish from the medicine. And Kino thrust the pearl back into his clothing, and the music of the pearl had become sinister in his ears, and it was interwoven with the music of evil. The hot sun beat on the earth so that Kino and Juana moved into the lacy shade of the brush, and small gray birds scampered on the ground in the shade. In the heat of the dayKino relaxed and covered his eyes with his hat and wrapped his blanket about his face to keep the flies off, and he slept. But Juana did not sleep. She sat quiet as a stone and her face was quiet. Her mouth was still swollen where Kino had struck her, and big flies buzzed around the cut on her chin.


In the heat of the dayKino relaxed and covered his eyes with his hat and wrapped his blanket about his face to keep the flies off, and he slept. But Juana did not sleep. She sat quiet as a stone and her face was quiet. Her mouth was still swollen where Kino had struck her, and big flies buzzed around the cut on her chin. But she sat as still as a sentinel, and when Coyotito awakened she placed him on the ground in front of her and watched him wave his arms and kick his feet, and he smiled and gurgled at her until she smiled too. She picked up a little twig from the ground and tickled him, and she gave him water from the gourd she carried in her bundle. Kino stirred in a dream, and he cried out in a guttural voice, and his hand moved in symbolic fighting. And then he moaned and sat up suddenly, his eyes wide and his nostrils flaring. He listened and heard only the cricking heat and the hiss of distance. "What is it?". Juana asked. "Hush," he said. "You were dreaming. ""Perhaps.". But he was restless, and when she gave him a corn-cake from her store he paused in his chewing to listen. He was uneasy and nervous; he glanced over his shoulder; he lifted the big knife and felt its edge. When Coyotito gurgled on the ground Kino said: "Keep him quiet. ""What is the matter?". Juana asked. "I don't know. "He listened again, an animal light in his eyes. He stood up then, silently; and crouched low, he threaded his way through the brush towards the road. But he did not step into the road; he crept into the cover of a thorny tree and peered out along the way he had come. And then he saw them moving along. His body stiffened and he drew down his head and peeked out from under a fallen branch. In the distance he could see three figures, two on foot and one on horseback. But he knew what they were, and a chill of fear went through him. Even in the distance he could see the two on foot moving slowly along, bent low to the ground. Here, one would pause and look at the earth, while the other joined him. They were the trackers, they could follow the trail of a big horn sheep in the stone mountains. They were as sensitive as hounds.


Here, one would pause and look at the earth, while the other joined him. They were the trackers, they could follow the trail of a big horn sheep in the stone mountains. They were as sensitive as hounds. Here, he and Juana might have stepped out of the wheel rut, and these people from the inland, these hunters, could follow, could read a broken straw or a little tumbled pile of dust. Behind them, on a horse, was a dark man, his nose covered with a blanket, and across his saddle a rifle gleamed in the sun. Kino lay as rigid as the tree limb. He barely breathed, and his eyes went to the place where he had swept out the track. Even the sweeping might be a message to the trackers. He knew these inland hunters. In a country where there was little game they managed to live because of their ability to hunt, and they were hunting him. They scuttled over the ground like animals and found a sign and crouched over it while the horseman waited. The trackers whined a little, like excited dogs on a warming trail. Kino slowly drew his big knife to his hand and made it ready. He knew what he must do. If the trackers found the swept place, he must leap for the horseman, kill him quickly and take the rifle. That was his only chance in the world. And as the three drew nearer on the road, Kino dug little pits with his sandalled toes so that he could leap without warning, so that his feet would not slip. He had only a little vision under the fallen limb. Now Juana, back in her hidden place, heard the pad of the horse's hoofs, and Coyotito gurgled. She took him up quickly and put him under her shawl and gave him her breast and he was silent. When the trackers came near, Kino could see only their legs and only the legs of the horse from under the fallen branch. He saw the dark horny feet of the men and their ragged white clothes, and he heard the creak of leather of the saddle and the clink of spurs. The trackers stopped at the swept place and studied it, and the horseman stopped. The horse flung his head up against the bit and the bit-roller clicked under his tongue and the horse snorted.


She took him up quickly and put him under her shawl and gave him her breast and he was silent. When the trackers came near, Kino could see only their legs and only the legs of the horse from under the fallen branch. He saw the dark horny feet of the men and their ragged white clothes, and he heard the creak of leather of the saddle and the clink of spurs. The trackers stopped at the swept place and studied it, and the horseman stopped. The horse flung his head up against the bit and the bit-roller clicked under his tongue and the horse snorted. Then the dark trackers turned and studied the horse and watched his ears. Kino was not breathing, but his back arched a little and the muscles of his arms and legs stood out with tension and a line of sweat formed on his upper lip. For a long moment the trackers bent over the road, and then they moved on slowly, studying the ground ahead of them, and the horseman moved after them. The trackers scuttled along, stopping, looking, and hurrying on. They would be back, Kino knew. They would be circling and searching, peeping, stopping, and they would come back sooner or later to his covered track. He slid backward and did not bother to cover his tracks. He could not; too many little signs were there, too many broken twigs and scuffed places and displaced stones. And there was a panic in Kino now, a panic of flight. The trackers would find his trail, he knew it. There was no escape, except in flight. He edged away from the road and went quickly and silently to the hidden place where Juana was. She looked up at him in question. "Trackers," he said. ". Come!"And then a helplessness and a hopelessness swept over him, and his face went black and his eyes were sad. ". Perhaps I should let them take me. "Instantly Juana was on her feet and her hand lay on his arm. ". You have the pearl," she cried hoarsely. ". Do you think they would take you back alive to say they had stolen it?"His hand strayed limply to the place where the pearl was hidden under his clothes. ". They will find it," he said weakly. "Come," she said. ". Come!"And when he did not respond, "Do you think they would let me live?


"Do you think they would take you back alive to say they had stolen it?"His hand strayed limply to the place where the pearl was hidden under his clothes. ". They will find it," he said weakly. "Come," she said. ". Come!"And when he did not respond, "Do you think they would let me live? Do you think they would let the little one here live?"Her goading struck into his brain; his lips snarled and his eyes were fierce again. ". Come," he said. ". We will go into the mountains. Maybe we can lose them in the mountains. "Frantically he gathered the gourds and the little bags that were their property. Kino carried a bundle in his left hand, but the big knife swung free in his right hand. He parted the brush for Juana and they hurried to the west, towards the high stone mountains. They trotted quickly through the tangle of the undergrowth. This was panic flight. Kino did not try to conceal his passage; he trotted, kicking the stones, knocking the tell-tale leaves from the little trees. The high sun streamed down on the dry creaking earth so that even the vegetation ticked in protest. But ahead were the naked granite mountains, rising out of erosion rubble and standing monolithic against the sky. And Kino ran for the high place, as nearly all animals do when they are pursued. This land was waterless, furred with the cacti which could store water and with the greatrooted brush which could reach deep into the earth for a little moisture and get along on very little. And underfoot was not soil but broken rock, split into small cubes, great slabs, but none of it water-rounded. Little tufts of sad dry grass grew between the stones, grass that had sprouted with one single rain and headed, dropped its seed, and died. Horned toads watched the family go by and turned their little pivoting dragon heads. And now and then a great jack-rabbit, disturbed in his shade, bumped away and hid behind the nearest rock. The singing heat lay over this desert country, and ahead the stone mountains looked cool and welcoming. And Kino fled. He knew what would happen. A little way along the road the trackers would become aware that they had missed the path, and they would come back, searching and judging, and in a little while they would find the place where Kino and Juana had rested.


The singing heat lay over this desert country, and ahead the stone mountains looked cool and welcoming. And Kino fled. He knew what would happen. A little way along the road the trackers would become aware that they had missed the path, and they would come back, searching and judging, and in a little while they would find the place where Kino and Juana had rested. From there it would be easy for them - these little stones, the fallen leaves and the whipped branches, the scuffed places where a foot had slipped. Kino could see them in his mind, slipping along the track, whining a little with eagerness, and behind them, dark and half-interested, the horseman with the rifle. His work would come last, for he would not take them back. Oh, the music of evil sang loud in Kino's head now, it sang with the whine of heat and with the dry ringing of snake rattles. It was not large and overwhelming now, but secret and poisonous, and the pounding of his heart gave it undertone and rhythm. The way began to rise, and as it did the rocks grew larger. But now Kino had put a little distance between his family and the trackers. Now, on the first rise, he rested. He climbed a great boulder and looked back over the shimmering country, but he could not see hisenemies, not even the tall horseman riding through the brush. Juana had squatted in the shade of the boulder. She raised her bottle of water to Coyotito's lips; his little dried tongue sucked greedily at it. She looked up at Kino when he came back; she saw him examine her ankles, cut and scratched from the stones and brush, andshe covered them quickly with her skirt. Then she handed the bottle to him, but he shook his head. Her eyes were bright in her tired face. Kino moistened his cracked lips with his tongue. "Juana," he said, "I will go on and you will hide. I will lead them into the mountains, and when they have gone past, you will go north to Loreto or to Santa Rosalia. Then, if I can escape them, I will come to you. It is the only safe way. "She looked full into his eyes for a moment. ". No," she said. ". We go with you. ""I can go faster alone," he said harshly.


It is the only safe way. "She looked full into his eyes for a moment. ". No," she said. ". We go with you. ""I can go faster alone," he said harshly. ". You will put the little one in more danger if you go with me. ""No," said Juana. "You must. It is the wise thing and it is my wish," he said. "No," said Juana. He looked then for weakness in her face, for fear or irresolution, and there was none. Her eyes were very bright. He shrugged his shoulders helplessly then, but he had taken strength from her. When they moved on it was no longer panic flight. The country, as it rose toward the mountains, changed rapidly. Now there were long outcroppings of granite with deep crevices between, and Kino walked on bare unmarkable stone when he could and leaped from ledge to ledge. He knew that wherever the trackers lost his path they must circle and lose time before they found it again. And so he did not go straight for the mountains any more; he moved in zigzags, and sometimes he cut back to the south and left a sign and then went toward the mountains over bare stone again. And the path rose steeply now, so that he panted a little as he went. The sun moved downward toward the bare stone teeth of the mountains, and Kino set his direction for a dark and shadowy cleft in the range. If there were any water at all, it would be there where he could see, even in the distance, a hint of foliage. And if there were any passage through the smooth stone range, it would be by this same deep cleft. It had its danger, for the trackers would think of it too, but the empty water-bottle did not let that consideration enter. And as the sun lowered, Kino and Juana struggled wearily up the steep slope towards the cleft. High in the gray stone mountains, under a frowning peak, a little spring bubbled out of a rupture in the stone. It was fed by shade-preserved snow in the summer, and now and then it died completely and bare rocks and dry algae were on its bottom. But nearly always it gushed out, cold and clean and lovely. In the times when the quick rains fell, itmight become a freshet and send its column of white water crashing down the mountain cleft, but nearly always it was a lean little spring.


It was fed by shade-preserved snow in the summer, and now and then it died completely and bare rocks and dry algae were on its bottom. But nearly always it gushed out, cold and clean and lovely. In the times when the quick rains fell, itmight become a freshet and send its column of white water crashing down the mountain cleft, but nearly always it was a lean little spring. It bubbled out into a pool and then fell a hundred feet to another pool, and this one, overflowing, dropped again, so that it continued, down and down, until it came to the rubble of the upland, and there it disappeared altogether. There wasn't much left of it then anyway, for every time it fell over an escarpment the thirsty air drank it, and it splashed from the pools to the dry vegetation. The animals from miles around came to drink from the little pools, and the wild sheep and the deer, the pumas and raccoons, and the mice - all came to drink. And the birds which spent the day in the brushland came at night to the little pools that were like steps in the mountain cleft. Beside this tiny stream, wherever enough earth collected for root-hold, colonies of plants grew, wild grape and little palms, maidenhair fern, hibiscus, and tall pampas grass with feathery rods raised above the spike leaves. And in the pool lived frogs and water-skaters, and water-worms crawled on the bottom of the pool. Everything that loved water came to these few shallow places. The cats took their prey there, and strewed feathers and lapped water through their bloody teeth. The little pools were places of life because of the water, and places of killing becauseof the water, too. The lowest step, where the stream collected before it tumbled down a hundred feet and disappeared into the rubbly desert, was a little platform of stone and sand. Only a pencil of water fell into the pool, but it was enough to keep the pool full and to keep the ferns green in the underhang of the cliff, and wild grape climbed the stone mountain and all manner of little plants found comfort here. The freshets had made a small sandy beach through which the pool flowed, and bright green watercress grew in the damp sand.


The little pools were places of life because of the water, and places of killing becauseof the water, too. The lowest step, where the stream collected before it tumbled down a hundred feet and disappeared into the rubbly desert, was a little platform of stone and sand. Only a pencil of water fell into the pool, but it was enough to keep the pool full and to keep the ferns green in the underhang of the cliff, and wild grape climbed the stone mountain and all manner of little plants found comfort here. The freshets had made a small sandy beach through which the pool flowed, and bright green watercress grew in the damp sand. The beach was cut and scarred and padded by the feet of animals that had come to drink and to hunt. The sun had passed over the stone mountains when Kino and Juana struggled up the steep broken slope and came at last to the water. From this step they could look out over the sun-beaten desert to the blue Gulf in the distance. They came utterly weary to the pool, and Juana slumped to her knees and first washed Coyotito's face and then filled her bottle and gave him a drink. And the baby was weary and petulant, and he cried softly until Juana gave him her breast, and then he gurgled and clucked against her. Kino drank long and thirstily at the pool. For a moment, then, he stretched out beside the water and relaxed all his muscles and watched Juana feeding the baby, and then he got to his feet and went to the edge of the step where the water slipped over, and he searched the distance carefully. His eyes set on a point and he became rigid. Far down the slope he could see the two trackers; they were little more than dots or scurrying ants and behind them a larger ant. Juana had turned to look at him and she saw his back stiffen. "How far?". She asked quietly. "They will be here by evening," said Kino. He looked up the long steep chimney of the cleft where the water came down. ". We must go west," he said, and his eyes searched thestone shoulder behind the cleft. And thirty feet up on the gray shoulder he saw a series of little erosion caves. He slipped off his sandals and clambered up to them, gripping the bare stone with his toes, and he looked into the shallow caves.


"We must go west," he said, and his eyes searched thestone shoulder behind the cleft. And thirty feet up on the gray shoulder he saw a series of little erosion caves. He slipped off his sandals and clambered up to them, gripping the bare stone with his toes, and he looked into the shallow caves. They were only a few feet deep, wind-hollowed scoops, but they sloped slightly downward and back. Kino crawled into the largest one and lay down and knew that he could not be seen from the outside. Quickly he went back to Juana. "You must go up there. Perhaps they will not find us there," he said. Without question she filled her water bottle to the top, and then Kino helped her up to the shallow cave and brought up the packages of food and passed them to her. And Juana sat in the cave entrance and watched him. She saw that he did not try to erase their tracks in the sand. Instead, he climbed up the brush cliff beside the water, clawing and tearing at the ferns and wild grape as he went. And when he had climbed a hundred feet to the next bench, he came down again. He looked carefully at the smooth rock shoulder toward the cave to see that there was no trace of passage, and last he climbed up and crept into the cave beside Juana. "When they go up," he said, "we will slip away, down to the lowlands again. I am afraid only that the baby may cry. You must see that he does not cry. ""He will not cry," she said, and she raised the baby's face to her own and looked into his eyes and he stared solemnly back at her. "He knows," said Juana. Now Kino lay in the cave entrance, his chin braced on his crossed arms, and he watched the blue shadow of the mountain move out across the brushy desert below until it reached the Gulf, and the long twilight of the shadow was over the land. The trackers were long in coming, as though they had trouble with the trail Kino had left. It was dusk when they came at last to the little pool. And all three were on foot now, for a horse could not climb the last steep slope. From above they were thin figures in the evening. The two trackers scurried about on the little beach, and they saw Kino's progress up the cliff before they drank.


And all three were on foot now, for a horse could not climb the last steep slope. From above they were thin figures in the evening. The two trackers scurried about on the little beach, and they saw Kino's progress up the cliff before they drank. The man with the rifle sat down and rested himself, and the trackers squatted near him, and in the evening the points of their cigarettes glowed and receded. And then Kino could see that they were eating, and the soft murmur of their voices came to him. Then darkness fell, deep and black in the mountain cleft. The animals that used the pool came near and smelled men there and drifted away again into the darkness. He heard a murmur behind him. Juana was whispering: "Coyotito.". She was begging him to be quiet. Kino heard the baby whimper, and he knew from the muffled sounds that Juana had covered his head with her shawl. Down on the beach a match flared, and in its momentary light Kino saw that two of the men were sleeping, curled up like dogs, while the third watched, and he saw the glint of the rifle in the match light. And then the match died, but it left a picture on Kino's eyes. He could see it, just how each man was, two sleeping curled up and the third squatting in the sand with the rifle between his knees. Kino moved silently back into the cave. Juana's eyes were two sparks reflecting a low star. Kino crawled quietly close to her and he put his lips near to her cheek. "There is a way," he said. "But they will kill you. ""If I get first to the one with the rifle," Kino said, "I must get to him first, then I will be all right. Two are sleeping. "Her hand crept out from under her shawl and gripped his arm. ". They will see your white clothes in the starlight. ""No," he said. ". And I must go before moonrise. "He searched for a soft word and then gave it up. ". If they kill me," he said, "lie quietly. And when they are gone away, go to Loreto. "Her hand shook a little, holding his wrist. "There is no choice," he said. ". It is the only way. They will find us in the morning. "Her voice trembled a little.


And when they are gone away, go to Loreto. "Her hand shook a little, holding his wrist. "There is no choice," he said. ". It is the only way. They will find us in the morning. "Her voice trembled a little. ". Go with God," she said. He peered closely at her and he could see her large eyes. His hand fumbled out and found the baby, and for a moment his palm lay on Coyotito's head. And then Kino raised his hand and touched Juana's cheek, and she held her breath. Against the sky in the cave entrance Juana could see that Kino was taking off his white clothes, for dirty and ragged though they were they would show up against the dark night. His own brown skin was a better protection for him. And then she saw how he hooked his amulet neck-string about the horn handle of his great knife, so that it hung down in front of him and left both hands free. He did not come back to her. For a moment his body was black in the cave entrance, crouched and silent, and then he was gone. Juana moved to the entrance and looked out. She peered like an owl from the hole in the mountain, and the baby slept under the blanket on her back, his face turned sideways against her neck and shoulder. She could feel his warm breath against her skin, and Juana whispered her combination of prayer and magic, her Hail Marys and her ancient intercession, against the black unhuman things. The night seemed a little less dark when she looked out, and to the east there was a lightening in the sky, down near the horizon where the moon would show. And, looking down, she could see the cigarette of the man on watch. Kino edged like a slow lizard down the smooth rock shoulder. He had turned his neckstring so that the great knife hung down from his back and could not clash against the stone. His spread fingers gripped the mountain, and his bare toes found support through contact, and even his chest lay against the stone so that he would not slip. For any sound, a rolling pebble or a sigh, a little slip of flesh on rock, would rouse the watchers below. Any sound that was not germane to the night would make them alert.


His spread fingers gripped the mountain, and his bare toes found support through contact, and even his chest lay against the stone so that he would not slip. For any sound, a rolling pebble or a sigh, a little slip of flesh on rock, would rouse the watchers below. Any sound that was not germane to the night would make them alert. But the night was not silent; the little tree frogs that lived near the stream twittered like birds, and the high metallic ringing of the cicadas filled the mountain cleft. And Kino's own music was in his head, the music of the enemy, low and pulsing, nearly asleep. But the Song of the Family had become as fierce and sharp and feline as the snarl of a female puma. The family song was alive now and driving him down on the dark enemy. The harsh cicada seemed to take up its melody, and the twittering tree frogs called little phrases of it. And Kino crept silently as a shadow down the smooth mountain face. One bare foot moved a few inches and the toes touched the stone and gripped, and the other foot a few inches, and then the palm of one hand a little downwards, and then the other hand, until the whole body, without seeming to move, had moved. Kino's mouth was open so that even his breath would make no sound, for he knew that he was not invisible. If the watcher, sensing movement, looked at the dark place against the stone which was his body, he could see him. Kino must move so slowly he would not draw the watcher's eyes. It took him a long time to reach the bottom and to crouch behind a little dwarf palm. His heart thundered in his chest and his hands and face were wet with sweat. He crouched and took great slow long breaths to calm himself. Only twenty feet separated him from the enemy now, and he tried to remember the ground between. Was there any stone which might trip him in his rush? He kneaded his legs against cramp and found that his muscles were jerking after their long tension. And then he looked apprehensively to the east. The moon would rise in a few moments now, and he must attack before it rose. He could see the outline of the watcher, but the sleeping men were below his vision. It was the watcher Kino must find - must find quickly and without hesitation.


The moon would rise in a few moments now, and he must attack before it rose. He could see the outline of the watcher, but the sleeping men were below his vision. It was the watcher Kino must find - must find quickly and without hesitation. Silently he drew the amulet string over his shoulder and loosened the loop from the horn handle of his great knife. He was too late, for as he rose from his crouch the silver edge of the moon slipped above the eastern horizon, and Kino sank back behind his bush. It was an old and ragged moon, but it threw hard light and hard shadow into the mountain cleft, and now Kino could see the seated figure of the watcher on the little beach beside the pool. The watcher gazed full at the moon, and then he lighted another cigarette, and the match illumined his dark face for a moment. There could be no waiting now; when the watcher turned his head, Kino must leap. His legs were as tight as wound springs. And then from above came a little murmuring cry. The watcher turned his head to listen and then he stood up, and one of the sleepers stirred on the ground and awakened and asked quietly, "What is it?""I don't know," said the watcher. ". It sounded like a cry, almost like a human - like a baby. "The man who had been sleeping said: "You can't tell. Some coyote bitch with a litter. I've heard a coyote pup cry like a baby. "The sweat rolled in drops down Kino's forehead and fell into his eyes and burned them. The little cry came again and the watcher looked up the side of the hill to the dark cave. "Coyote maybe," he said, and Kino heard the harsh click as he cocked the rifle. "If it's a coyote, this will stop it," the watcher said as he raised the gun. Kino was in mid-leap when the gun crashed and the barrel-flash made a picture on his eyes. The great knife swung and crunched hollowly. It bit through neck and deep into chest, and Kino was a terrible machine now. He grasped the rifle even as he wrenched free his knife. His strength and his movement and his speed were a machine. He whirled and struck the head of the seated man like a melon.


He grasped the rifle even as he wrenched free his knife. His strength and his movement and his speed were a machine. He whirled and struck the head of the seated man like a melon. The third man scrabbled away like a crab, slipped into the pool, and then he began to climb frantically, to climb up the cliff where the water pencilled down. His hands and feet threshed in the tangle of the wild grapevine, and he whimpered and gibbered as he tried to get up. But Kino had become as cold and deadly as steel. Deliberately he threw the lever of the rifle, and then he raised the gun and aimed deliberately and fired. He saw his enemy tumble backward into the pool, and Kino strode to the water. In the moonlight he could see the frantic eyes, and Kino aimed and fired between the eyes. And then Kino stood uncertainly. Something was wrong, some signal was trying to get through to his brain. Tree frogs and cicadas were silent now. And then Kino's brain cleared from its red concentration and he knew the sound - the keening, moaning, rising hysterical cry from the little cave in the side of the stone mountain, the cry of death. Everyone in La Paz remembers the return of the family; there may be some old ones who saw it, but those whose fathers and whose grandfathers told it to them remember it nevertheless. It is an event that happened to everyone. It was late in the golden afternoon when the first little boys ran hysterically in the town and spread the word that Kino and Juana were coming back. And everyone hurried to see them. The sun was settling toward the western mountains and the shadows on the ground were long. And perhaps that was what left the deep impression on those who saw them. The two came from the rutted country road into the city, and they were not walking in single file, Kino ahead and Juana behind, as usual, but side by side. The sun was behind them and their long shadows stalked ahead, and they seemed to carry two towers of darkness with them. Kino had a rifle across his arm and Juana carried her shawl like a sack over her shoulder. And in it was a small limp heavy bundle. The shawl was crusted with dried blood, and the bundle swayed a little as she walked.


Kino had a rifle across his arm and Juana carried her shawl like a sack over her shoulder. And in it was a small limp heavy bundle. The shawl was crusted with dried blood, and the bundle swayed a little as she walked. Her face was hard and lined and leathery with fatigue and with the tightness with which she fought fatigue. And her wide eyes stared inward on herself. She was as remote and as removed as Heaven. Kino's lips were thin and his jaws tight, and the people say that he carried fear with him, that he was as dangerous as a rising storm. The people say that the two seemed tobe removed from human experience; that they had gone through pain and had come out on the other side; that there was almost a magical protection about them. And those people who had rushed to see them crowded back and let them pass and did not speak to them. Kino and Juana walked through the city as though it were not there. Their eyes glanced neither right nor left nor up nor down, but stared only straight ahead. Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of black fear about them. And as they walked through the stone and plaster city brokers peered at them from barred windows and servants put one eye to a slitted gate and mothers turned the faces of their youngest children inward against their skirts. Kino and Juana strode side by side through the stone and plaster city and down among the brush houses, and the neighbours stood back and let them pass. Juan Tom s raised his hand in greeting and did not say the greeting and left his hand in the air for a moment uncertainly. In Kino's ears the Song of the Family was as fierce as a cry. He was immune and terrible, and his song had become a battle cry. They trudged past the burned square where their house had been without even looking at it. They cleared the brush that edged the beach and picked their way down the shore toward the water. And they did not look toward Kino's broken canoe. And when they came to the water's edge they stopped and stared out over the Gulf. And then Kino laid the rifle down, and he dug among his clothes, and then he held the great pearl in his hand. He looked into its surface and it was gray and ulcerous. Evil faces peered from it into his eyes, and he saw the light of burning.


And then Kino laid the rifle down, and he dug among his clothes, and then he held the great pearl in his hand. He looked into its surface and it was gray and ulcerous. Evil faces peered from it into his eyes, and he saw the light of burning. And in the surface of the pearl he saw the frantic eyes of the man in the pool. And in the surface of the pearl he saw Coyotito lying in the little cave with the top of his head shot away. And the pearl was ugly; it was gray, like a malignant growth. And Kino heard the music of the pearl, distorted and insane. Kino's hand shook a little, and he turned slowly to Juana and held the pearl out to her. She stood beside him, still holding her dead bundle over her shoulder. She looked at the pearl in his hand for a moment and then she looked into Kino's eyes and said softly: "No, you. "And Kino drew back his arm and flung the pearl with all his might. Kino and Juana watched it go, winking and glimmering under the setting sun. They saw the little splash in the distance, and they stood side by side watching the place for a long time. And the pearl settled into the lovely green water and dropped towards the bottom. The waving branches of the algae called to it and beckoned to it. The lights on its surface were green and lovely. It settled down to the sand bottom among the fern-like plants. Above, the surface of the water was a green mirror. And the pearl lay on the floor of the sea. A crab scampering over the bottom raised a little cloud of sand, and when it settled the pearl was gone. And the music of the pearl drifted to a whisper and disappeared.


1 AGRICULTURE FORM II NOTES 9.0.0 Soil Fertility II Inorganic Fertilizers 12 Lessons 10.0.0 Crop Production II Planting 16 Lessons 11.0.0 Crop Production III Nursery Practices 16 Lessons 12.0.0 Crop Production IV Field Practices 14 Lessons 13.0.0 Crop Production V Vegetables 16 Lessons 14.0.0 Livestock Health I Introduction 16 Lessons 15.0.0 Livestock Health II Parasites 16 Lessons 16.0.0 Livestock Production II Nutrition 12 Lessons Soil Fertility II Inorganic Fertilizers Introduction Plant nutrients occur in the soil in form of soluble substances. These substances are taken in by the plants in different quantities depending on their roles in the plant tissues. Essential Elements These are nutrients needed by plants for various uses. They are divided into two broad categories namely: Macronutrients micronutrients. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 2 Macro-nutrients These are also referred to as major nutrients. They are required by the plant in large quantities. They include; carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phophorus, potassium, sulphur, calcium magnesium. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are referred to as fertilizer elements, Calcium, magnesium and sulphur, are referred to as liming elements. Role of Macronutrients in Plants Nitrogen NO3,NH4 Sources: Artificial fertilizers Organic matter Atmospheric fixation by lightning Nitrogen fixing bacteria. Role of Nitrogen in Plants Vegetative growth Chlorophyll formation Build up of protoplasm. Improves leaf quality in leafy crops such as tea and cabbages. Deficiency Symptoms Yellowing of the leaves chlorosis. Stunted growth. Premature ripening. Premature shedding of the leaves. Light seeds. Effect of Excess Nitrogen Scorching of the leaves. Delayed maturity. Loss of Nitrogen From the Soil: Soil erosion. Leaching. Volatilization. Crop removal. Used by microorganisms.


Corrects the soil acidity. Deficiency symptoms Young leaves remain closed. There are light green bands along the margins of the leaves. Leaves in the terminal bud become hooked in appearance there is a die-back at the tip and along the margins. Loss of Calcium Crop removal Leaching Soil erosion Magnesium Mg2 Sources: Crop residues and organic manures Commercial fertilizers Weathering of soil minerals. Agricultural limes. Role of Magnesium in Plants Forms part of chlorophyll. Promotes the growth of the soil bacteria and enhances the nitrogen fixing power of the legumes. Activates the production and transport of carbohydrates and proteins in the growing plant. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 5 Deficiency symptoms Loss in green colour which starts from the bottom leaves and gradually moves upwards. The veins remain green. Leaves curve upwards along the margins. Stalks become weak and the plant develops long branched roots. The leaves become streaked. Sulphur S04 2- ,SO2 Sources: Commercial fertilizers. Soil mineral containing sulphides Atmospheric sulphur from industries. Rain water Role of Sulphur in Plants Formation and activation of coenzyme-A. Sulphur is a constituent of amino acids. Influence plant physiological processes. Deficiency Symptoms Small plants stunted growth. Poor nodulation in legumes. Light green to yellowish leaves chlorosis. Delayed maturity. Micro-nutrients Also referred to as trace or minor nutrients. They are required in small quantities traces. They are essential for proper growth and development of plants. They include; Iron, Manganese, Copper, Boron, Molybdenum Chlorine. Role of Micronutrients and Their Deficiency Symptoms Copper Role in oxidation-reduction reactions. Respiration and utilization of iron Deficiency symptoms-yellowing of young leaves. Iron Synthesis of proteins. Takes part in oxidation-reduction reactions. Deficiency symptoms - leaf chlorosis For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 6 Molybdenum Nitrogen transformation in plants.


Iron Synthesis of proteins. Takes part in oxidation-reduction reactions. Deficiency symptoms - leaf chlorosis For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 6 Molybdenum Nitrogen transformation in plants. Metabolization of nitrates to amino acids and proteins Deficiency symptoms -leaf curl and scathing. Manganese - Same as molybdenum. Zinc Formation of growth hormone. Reproduction process Deficiency symptoms - white bud formation. Boron Absorption of water. Translocation of sugar Inorganic Fertilizers These are chemically produced substances added to the soil to improve fertility. Classification According to: Nutrients contained Straight - contain only one macronutrient. Compound fertilizers - contain more than one macronutrient Time of application Some applied when planting. Top dressing after crop emergence Effects on the soil pH. Acidic fertilizers. Neutral fertilizers. Basic fertilizers. Properties and Identification of Fertilizers Nitrogenous Fertilizers Characteristics Highly soluble in water. Highly mobile in the soil hence it is applied as a top dress. Easily leached because of the high solubility hence does not have residual effect on the soil. Has scorching effect on young crops during wet seasons. Easy to volatilize during hot season. They have a tendency to cake under moist conditions. They are hygroscopic hence should be stored in dry conditions. Examples: Sulphate of Ammonia NH4 2 SO4 Physical appearance: white crystals, Has acidic effect, Contains 20 N. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 7 Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate NH4 2 SO4 NH4 NO3 Colour: granules which appear yellow orange, less acidic, contains 26 N. Calcium Ammonium Nitrate CAN Colour: greyish granules, neutral in nature, contains 21 N.


Examples: Sulphate of Ammonia NH4 2 SO4 Physical appearance: white crystals, Has acidic effect, Contains 20 N. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 7 Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate NH4 2 SO4 NH4 NO3 Colour: granules which appear yellow orange, less acidic, contains 26 N. Calcium Ammonium Nitrate CAN Colour: greyish granules, neutral in nature, contains 21 N. Urea Colour: small whitish granules Easily leached or volatilized, contains 45- 46 N. Phosphate Fertilizers Has low solubility and immobile. Non-scorching. Has a high residual effect hence benefit the next season's crop. Easy to store because they are not hygroscopic. Examples; Single super-phosphate Appearance: whitish, creamy white granules, contains 20-21 P2O5 Double super-phosphate Appearance: dark greyish granules, Contains 40-42 P2O5 Triple super-phosphate Appearance: small greyish granules, Contain 44-48 P2O5 Potassic Fertilizers Characteristics: Has moderate scorching effect. Moderately soluble in water. Most Kenyan soils have sufficient potassium. Examples; Muriate of Potash KCl Contain 60 - 62 K2O Slightly hygroscopic. Appearance amorphous white. Sulphate of Potash 50 K2O Compound or Mixed Fertilizers For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 8 These are fertilizers which supply 2 or more of the macronutrients. Examples; Mono ammonium phosphate. Di-ammonium phosphate 20:20:20, 23:23:23 Advantages of application of compound fertilizers Saves time and money. Mixture gives improved storage properties and better handling. Disadvantages of compound fertilizers application Expensive. Wasteful.


Mixture gives improved storage properties and better handling. Disadvantages of compound fertilizers application Expensive. Wasteful. Mixing may not be thorough. Incompatibility of the individual fertilizers. Methods of fertilizer application Broadcasting - random scattering of the fertilizers on the ground. Placement method - application of fertilizers in the planting holes. Side dressing - fertilizer is placed at the side of the plant within the root zone, in bands or spot-rings. Foliar spraying - specially formulated fertilizer solution applied on the foliage in spray form. Drip method - applied through irrigation water. Determination of Fertilizer Rates Contents of fertilizers are expressed as fertilizer grade or fertilizer analysis. Fertilizer grade indicate the guaranteed minimum of the active ingredients N, P2O5, K 2O in the mixture. It is expressed as a percentage on a weight to weight basis or percentage by weigh Example 10:20:0 means for every 10kg of the mixture there are 10kg of nitrogen, 20kg of P2O 5 and 0kg of K2O. Example A farmer was asked to apply fertilizers as follows: 60 kg ha nitrogen top dressing 60 kg ha P2O5 in planting hole . 60 kg ha K2O. How much sulphate of ammonia 20 would be required per hectare? How much double super-phosphate 40 P2O5would be required per hectare? How much muriate of potash 50 K2O would be required per hectare?


How much sulphate of ammonia 20 would be required per hectare? How much double super-phosphate 40 P2O5would be required per hectare? How much muriate of potash 50 K2O would be required per hectare? Answer Solution Sulphate of ammonia SA which gives 60kg ha N 60 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 9 20x 100 300kg SA Double super phosphate 40 P2O5 which gives 60kg ha P2O5 60 40x 100 150kg DSP Muriate of potash 60 K2O which gives 60kg hK2O 60 x 100 100kg muriate of potash 60 Example A farmer was asked to apply fertilizers as follows: 200kg ha of DSP 40 P2O5 150kg ha of muriate of potash 60 K2O 150kg ha of sulphate of ammonia 20 N How much P2O5 did the farmer apply per acre? How much K2O did the farmer apply per hectare? How much N did the farmer apply per hectare? Solution Answer P2O5 applied per hectare from 200kg of DSP 40 100x 200 80kg ha P2O 5 K2O5 applied per hectare from 150kg of muriate of potash 60 100x150 90kg ha K2O N applied per hectare from 150kg ha sulphate of ammonia 20 100 x 150 30kg ha N Soil Sampling Refers to obtaining of small quantity of soil that is representative in all aspects of the entire farm. Soil Sampling Procedures Clear the vegetation over the site. Dig out soil at depths of 15-25cm. Place the dug out soil in a clean container. Mix thoroughly the soil in the container. Take a sample and send it to National Agricultural Laboratory for analysis. The container carrying the sample should be properly labeled as follows: Name of the farmer, Location, District Address of the farmer.


They are not bulky therefore storage is easy. They are easy to handle during planting making operation easy. When planting seeds, it is easy to use machines like seed planters and drillers. It is easy to apply manures and fertilizers together with seeds during planting. Fertilizers and manures application can be easily mechanized. It is possible to develop new crop varieties due to cross pollination. Disantivantages of using seeds as planting materials. Some seeds have long dormancy and they may need special treatment in order to germinate. Plants raised from seeds have variations from the mother plant due to cross pollination, This may introduce undesirable characteristics. Soil borne pests may damage seeds if left for sometime in the soil before rain falls. Some seeds may lose viability if stored for a long time. This leads to gaps in the farm. 1. Vegetative materials. These are plant parts which have the ability to produce roots, they grow and develop in to new plants. Plant parts such as leaves, roots or stems can be used for planting as long as they are capable of rooting. Advantages of using vegetative materials for planting. Crops originating from vegetative materials matures faster than those from seeds. The crops shows uniformity in such qualities as disease resistance, seed size, colour, keeping or storing quality and chemical composition. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 12 It is possible to produce many varieties of compatible crops on the same root stock. Use of the vegetative materials is easier and faster, especially where seeds show prolonged dormancy. The resulting plant has desired shape and size for ease of harvesting and spraying. It facilitates the propagation of crops which are seedless or those that produce seeds which are not viable or have a long dormancy period. Such crops include sugar-cane, bananas, Napier grass and others. Disadvantages. Vegetative propagation does not result in new crop varieties. Keeping the materials free of diseases is difficult. Materials cannot be stored for long. The materials are bulky and there fore difficult to store and transport. Plant parts used for vegetative propagation. I Bulbils. These are tiny sisal plants produced in the inflorescence almost at the end of the plant growth cycle. They resemble the mother plant except that they are smaller in size.


I Bulbils. These are tiny sisal plants produced in the inflorescence almost at the end of the plant growth cycle. They resemble the mother plant except that they are smaller in size. They are produced by the branches of the sisal pole. When manure they mature they develop rudimentary roots and fall off to the ground just below the pole. They are the collected and raised in the nurseries before they are transplanted t o the main field. One sisal pole may produce as many as 3,000 bulbils. They are usually 10cm long. They make good planting materials and are better than sucke ii Splits These are plantlets divided from the existing mother plant with complete with complete leaves and rooting system. They are used to propagate most pasture grasses and pyrethrum. Pyrethrum splits are raised first in nursery and then transplanted to the field. Iii Crowns and slips These are materials used to propagate pineapples Crowns are born on top of the fruits and are broken off and prepared for planting. They are more preferred to suckers because they give uniform growth and take two years to reach maturity. Slips are borne to the base of the pineapple fruits. They are cut and prepared for plantings. Their growth rate is faster than for crowns giving average uniformity. They take 22 months from planting to maturity. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 13 Crowns and slips are planted in the nurseries first before transplanting to the main seed bed. Iv Suckers These are small plants that grow from the base of the main stem. They have adventitious roots which grow quickly when planted to form a new plant. They are used to propagate bananas, sisal, and pineapples. When planted, suckers give uneven growth leading to maturity at different times. T hey should be planted when they are young. V Tubers These are underground food storage organs which are short and thick. They are used as vegetative propagation materials because they sprout and produce roots for growth. There are mainly two types of tubers, the stem and root tubers. Root tubers develop from the thickening of the adventitious roots. Root tubers are not commonly used for propagation since they produce weak stems.


There are mainly two types of tubers, the stem and root tubers. Root tubers develop from the thickening of the adventitious roots. Root tubers are not commonly used for propagation since they produce weak stems. A good example of a root tuber is the sweet potato. On the other hand stem tubers have some auxiliary buds which are sometimes referred to as eyes . These eyes sprout to produce stems which grow into plants. Stem tubers are therefore swollen stems with scales leaves. A good example of a stem tuber is Irish potato. Vi Vines. These are soft wood cuttings which produce roots easily upon planting to give rise to new plants. They are cut from the mother plants and planted directly into the field. Soft wood cuttings vines are taken from rapidly growing shoots. The soft upper parts of the shoots are preferred. When preparing the cuttings, some leaves and nodes are included. Roots are produced from the nodes. Vii Cuttings and setts o Cuttings are portion of plants parts which are cut and then planted. O They may be from stems, roots or leaves. O A stem cutting must have a bud which develops into shoot. O The root cutting must have an eye. Cutting must have an eye. O Cuttings must produce leaves as soon as possible so that they can start making their own food. O Sometimes cuttings are induced to produce roots by use of rooting hormones. O Once the cuttings have developed roots, they give rise to new plants. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 14 o In some crops, the cuttings are big enough to be planted directly to the main seedbed whereas there are some plants whose cuttings are first raised in special nurseries before they are transplanted to the seedbed. O The cuttings of Napier grass and sugar-cane are planted directly on the seedbed but those of tea; have to be raised in special nursery before they are transferred to the seed bed. O Examples of crops which are propagated by use of stem cuttings include: tea, cassava, and sugar-cane and Napier grass. O The stem cuttings used to propagate sugar-cane are known as setts . Setts are stem cuttings which have 3-5 nodes are usually 30-45 cm long. Factors affecting rooting of cuttings.


O The stem cuttings used to propagate sugar-cane are known as setts . Setts are stem cuttings which have 3-5 nodes are usually 30-45 cm long. Factors affecting rooting of cuttings. Temperature: for the cuttings to produce roots warm temperatures are required around the root zone while cool temperatures are important for the aerial part of the cuttings. For most species optimum day and light temperatures for rooting are 22 -27 c and 15-21 c respectively. A Relative humidity: Proper rooting of cuttings requires high humidity which lower the transpiration rate. It also increases and maintains leaf turgidity all the time. As such, cuttings should be rooted in green houses or under shady conditions, where relative humidity can be regulated. Sometimes the propagation area can be sprayed with water to keep it moist. B Light intensity: soft wood cuttings need high intensity light to produce roots. This is because light promotes the production of roots since it affects the rate of photosynthesis. Hard wood cuttings do well in dark conditions since they have high amount of stored carbohydrates and therefore rooting is excellent in darkness. C Oxygen supply: plentiful supply of oxygen is required for root formation. The rooting medium used must therefore be capable of allowing proper aeration. D Chemical treatment: these rooting hormones which promote the production of roots in cuttings. The common ones include IAA Indoleacetic acid . E Leaf area: Soft woods cuttings require a lot of leaves for photosynthesis while hardwood cuttings will produce roots better without leaves. Selection of planting materials When selecting materials for planting the following factors must be considered: Suitability to the ecological conditions the selected planting materials should be well adapted to the soil conditions, temperatures and amount of rainfall in the area. There are many varieties of maize, for example, which are suitable to different ecological conditions. Hybrid 622f or example is mainly for the high altitudes areas of Kenya 513 for the medium altitudes and the Katumani composites for the low rainfall areas while the coast composites are suitable for the coastal conditions each variety will grow well and produce high yields if grown under the correct conditions Purity of the materials - planting materials should be pure and not mixed with other off types the percentage purity of planting materials will affect the seed while higher seeds rates are used for impure seeds.


Selection of planting materials When selecting materials for planting the following factors must be considered: Suitability to the ecological conditions the selected planting materials should be well adapted to the soil conditions, temperatures and amount of rainfall in the area. There are many varieties of maize, for example, which are suitable to different ecological conditions. Hybrid 622f or example is mainly for the high altitudes areas of Kenya 513 for the medium altitudes and the Katumani composites for the low rainfall areas while the coast composites are suitable for the coastal conditions each variety will grow well and produce high yields if grown under the correct conditions Purity of the materials - planting materials should be pure and not mixed with other off types the percentage purity of planting materials will affect the seed while higher seeds rates are used for impure seeds. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 15 Germination percentage - This is a measure of the germination potential of seeds it is expressed as a percentage for example a germination percentage of 80 means that for every 10 seeds planted 80 of them are expected to germinate. Germination percentage helps to determine the seed rates of crops lower seed rates are used for crops with higher germination percentage while higher seed rates are used for those with lower germination percentage. Certified seeds - These are seeds which have been tested and proven to have 100 germination potential and free from diseases and pests they give high yields after the first planting but the subsequent yields decline if replaced therefore in this case it is always advisable to buy new seeds which are certified every time planting is done In Kenya certified seeds are produced by the Kenya seed company KSC and distributed by Kenya Farmers Association KFA and other agents. PREPARATION OF PLANTING MATERIALS. After the planting materials are selected they are prepared in different ways before they are planted. Some of the methods used to prepare planting materials include the following: a Breaking the seed dormancy. Some seeds undergo a dormancy period between maturity and the time they sprout. The dormancy period is the stage whereby a seed cannot germinate, the stage of inhibited growth of seed. It should be broken before the seed is planted. Methods of breaking seed dormancy. The following methods are used to break seed dormancy: I Mechanical method: This is a method which aims at scratching the seed coat to make it permeable to water.


It should be broken before the seed is planted. Methods of breaking seed dormancy. The following methods are used to break seed dormancy: I Mechanical method: This is a method which aims at scratching the seed coat to make it permeable to water. Scarification is done by rubbing small sized seeds against hard surface such as sand paper, while filling or nicking the seed coat with a knife is done to large sized seeds such as croton seeds. Ii Heat treatment: this involves the use of hot water or burning the seeds lightly. It softens the seed coat making it permeable to water and thus is able to germinate. The seeds are soaked in hot water about 80 c for 3-4 minutes after which the water is allowed to drain off. Example of seeds treated in this way include: leucean 7 2 32 22 calliadra and acacia. Light burning also serves the same purpose as hot water treatment. In this case trash is spread over the seeds which are already covered with a thin layer of soil. The trash is burned, after which the seeds are retrieved and planted. Examples include acacia and wattle tree seeds. Overheating should be avoided as this will cook the seeds. Iii Chemical treatment: seeds are dipped in specific chemicals such as concentrated sulphuric acid, for two minutes and then removed. The chemical wears off the seed coat making it permeable to water. Care should be taken not to leave the seeds in the chemicals for too long as this will kill the embryo. Cotton seeds are normally treated with chemicals to remove the lint or fibres. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 16 iv Soaking in water: seeds are soaked in water for a period of between 24 48 hours until they swell. They are then removed and planted immediately. The seeds treated thus germinate very fast. Pre-germinated seeds are used when raising rice in the nurseries. B Seed dressing This is the coating of seeds with fungicides or an insecticide or a combination of the two chemicals. This is particularly common with cereals, sugar-cane and legumes. The chemicals protect the seedlings from soil-borne diseases and pests. Certified seeds which are sold by seed merchants in Kenya have been dressed with these chemicals. Farmers can also buy the chemicals and dress their own seeds.


The chemicals protect the seedlings from soil-borne diseases and pests. Certified seeds which are sold by seed merchants in Kenya have been dressed with these chemicals. Farmers can also buy the chemicals and dress their own seeds. C Seed inoculation In areas where soils are deficient in nitrogen, legumes such as beans, clovers and peas should be coated with an inoculant. An innoculant is a preparation which contains the right strain of Rhizobium depending on the type of legume and encourages nodulation, hence nitrogen fixation. Below is a table showing different legume crops and their right strain of Rhizobium. Crop inoculation group Rhizobium Species Lucerne R. melioti Clover R. trifoli Pea R. leguminosarum Bean R. phaseoli Lupin R. lupini soyabean R. japonicum When handling inoculated seeds, care should be taken to prevent them from coming in contact with chemicals. This means that inoculated seeds should not be dressed with chemicals as these will kill the bacterium. They should also be planted when the soil is moist to avoid dehydration which kills the bacterium. D Chitting This practice is also referred to as sprouting. The selected seed potatoes setts which are used as planting materials are sprouted before planting to break their dormancy. The setts of about 3-6 cm in diameter are arranged in layers of 2 or 3 tubers deep in a partially darkened room. The setts should be arranged with the rose- end facing upwards and the heel-end downwards. Diffused light encourages the production of short, green and healthy sprouts. If Chitting is done in complete darkness, long, pale thin sprouts develop which break easily during planting. During Chitting potato aphids and tuber months should be controlled by dusting or spraying the sett with dimethoate. Sometimes a chemical For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 17 known as Rendite is used to break dormancy, thus inducing sprouting. Chitting is done mainly to make sure that growth commences immediately the seed is planted so as to make maximum use of rains for high yields. Time of planting The timing of planting or sowing is influenced by the type of crop to be planted and the environmental conditions of the area. Factors to consider in timing planting. The rainfall pattern moisture condition of the soil.


Time of planting The timing of planting or sowing is influenced by the type of crop to be planted and the environmental conditions of the area. Factors to consider in timing planting. The rainfall pattern moisture condition of the soil. Type of crop to be planted. Soil type. Market demand. Prevalence of pests and diseases. Weed control. Timely planting is necessary and should be done at the onset of rains. In some areas where rainfall is scare dry planting is recommended. Advantages of timely planting. Crops make maximum use of rainfall and suitable soil temperature, leading to vigorous growth. Crops usually escape serious pests and diseases attack. Crops benefit from nitrogen flush which is available at the beginning of the rain. For horticultural crops, proper timing ensures that the produce is marketed when prices are high. Crops establish earlier than the weeds, hence smothering them. Methods of planting. There are two main methods of planting :- Broadcasting. Row planting. Broadcasting. This method involves scattering the seeds all over the field in a random manner. It is commonly adapted for light tiny seeds such as those of pasture grasses. It is easier, quicker and cheaper than row planting. However, it uses more seeds than row planting and the seeds are spread unevenly leading to crowding of plants in some places. This results in poor performance due to competition. Broadcasting gives a good ground cover, but weeding cannot be mechanized. For good results, the seedbed should be weed-free, firm and have a fine tilth. Row planting. The seeds or other planting materials are placed in holes, drills or furrows in rows. The distance between one row to the other and from one hole to the other is known. In Kenya, both large and small scale farmers practice row planting. It is practiced when planting many types of crops, especially perennial, annual and root crops. Advantages of row planting. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 18 Machines can be used easily between the rows. It is easy to establish the correct plant population. Lower seed rate is used than if broadcasting is adopted. It is easy to carry out cultural practices such as weeding, spraying and harvesting. Disadvantages of row planting. It does not provide an ample foliage cover. Thus the soil is liable to being eroded by wind and water.


Disadvantages of row planting. It does not provide an ample foliage cover. Thus the soil is liable to being eroded by wind and water. It is more expensive than broadcasting because of consuming a lot of labour and time. It requires some skill in measuring the distances between and within the rows. Seeds can also be planted by dibbling where the planting holes are dug by use of pangas or jembe, or by a dibbling stick dibbler . Most of the dibbling is done randomly although rows can also be used when using a planting line. Random dibbling is not popular in commercial farming due to low levels of production. It is only common among conservative farmers in planting of legumes such as beans, pigeon peas and cow peas. Over-sowing. This is the introduction of a pasture legume such as desmodium in an existing grass pasture. Some form of growth suppression of existing grass such as burning, slashing or hard grazing plus slight soil disturbance is recommended before over sowing. A heavy dose of superphosphate, preferably single supers at a rate of 200400 kg ha is applied. The grass must be kept short until the legume is fully established. Regardless of the method of establishment, the pastures and fodder stands should be ready for light grazing 4-5 months after planting if rainfall and soil fertility are not limiting. Under-sowing. This refers to the establishment of pasture under a cover crop, usually maize. Maize is planted as recommended and weeded 2-3 weeks after the onset of rains. Pasture seeds are then broadcasted with half the recommended basal fertilizer. No further weeding should be done and maize should be harvested early to expose the young pasture seedlings to sunlight. The benefits of under sowing include facilitating more intensive land utilization and encouraging an early establishment of pastures. Fodder crops and vegetetively propagated pasture species may also be under sown as long as rainfall is adequate for their establishment. Timing is not very crucial in this case and planting can be done as late as 6-8 weeks after the onset of rains. Plant population This refers to the ideal number of plants that can be comfortably accommodated in any given area, without overcrowding or too few to waste space. Agricultural research has arrived at the optimum number of various crop plants to be recommended to farmers. Plant population is determined by dividing the planting area by spacing of the crop.


For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 20 The space between the rows should allow free passage of the machinery which can be used in the field. For example, the spacing between rows of coffee is supposed to allow movement of tractor drawn implements. Soil fertility A fertile soil can support high plant population. Therefore closer spacing is possible. The size of plant Tall crop varieties require wider spacing while short varieties require closer spacing, for example, Kitale hybrid maize is widely spaced than Katumani maize. Moisture availability. Areas with higher rainfall are capable of supporting a large number of plants hence closer spacing than areas of low rainfall. Use of crop. Crop grown for the supply of forage or silage material is planted at a closer spacing than for grain production. Pest and diseases control. When crops are properly spaced, pests might find it difficult to move from one place to the other, for example, aphids in groundnuts. Growth habit. Spreading and tillering crop varieties require wider spacing than erect type. Seed rate. Seed rate is the amount of seeds to be planted in a given unit area governed by ultimate crop stand which is desired. The objective of correct spacing of crop is to obtain the maximum yields from a unit area without sacrificing quality. Most crops are seeded at lighter rates under drier conditions than under wet or irrigated conditions. Seeds with low germination percentage are planted at higher rates than those which have about 100 germination percentage. There is an optimal seed rate for various crops. For example, the seed rate for maize is 22 kg per hectare, wheat is 110 kg per hectare and cotton is between 17 to 45 kg per hectare. Factors to consider in choosing seed rates. Seed purity. When planting seed which is pure or with a high germination percentage, less seed is required. On the contrary, more seeds are required when using impure or mixed seeds. Germination percentage. Less seed is used when its germination percentage is higher. Seed of lower germination percentage is required in large amounts. Spacing. At closer spacing, more seeds are used than in a wider spacing. Number of seeds per hole. When two or more seeds are planted per hole, higher seed rate is required than when only one seed is planted per hole. The purpose of the crop. A crop to be used for silage making is spaced more closely than one meant for grain production.


When two or more seeds are planted per hole, higher seed rate is required than when only one seed is planted per hole. The purpose of the crop. A crop to be used for silage making is spaced more closely than one meant for grain production. This would require use of more seeds. Maize to be used for silage making, for example, requires more seeds than that meant for production of grain. Depth of planting. This is the distance from the soil surface to where the seed is placed. The correct depth of planting is determined by: Soil type: seeds will emerge from grater depths in sandy soil that are lighter than in clay soils. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 21 Soil moisture content: It is recommended that one plants deep in dry soils in order to place the seeds in a zone with moist soil. Size of the seed: Larger seeds are planted deeper in the soil because they have enough food reserves to make them shoot and emerge through the soil to the surface. Type of germination: seeds with epigeal type of germination carry cotyledons above the soil surface such as beans, should be planted shallower than those with hypogeal type of germination leave cotyledons under the soil such as maize. Suggested Activities. 1. Learners to carry out planting using broadcasting method and planting rows. 2. Learners to identify different vegetative propagation materials displayed by the teacher. 3. Learners to determine the correct plant population for a given area by mathematical calculations. 4. Learners to collect samples of different tree seeds and prepare them for planting by various methods of breaking seed dormancy. 5. Learners to determine the germination percentage of different samples of cereals and legume seeds. Crop Production III Nursery Practices Introduction Planting materials are either planted directly in a seedbed or indirectly through a nursery bed. A seedbed is a piece of land which could be small or large and prepared to receive planting materials. A nursery bed on the other hand is a small plot of land specially prepared for raising seedlings or planting materials before transplanting. It is usually 1m wide and any convenient length depending on the quantity of seedlings to be raised.


A seedbed is a piece of land which could be small or large and prepared to receive planting materials. A nursery bed on the other hand is a small plot of land specially prepared for raising seedlings or planting materials before transplanting. It is usually 1m wide and any convenient length depending on the quantity of seedlings to be raised. A seedling bed is a special type of nursery bed used for raising seedlings pricked out from the nursery bed due to overcrowding before they are ready for transplanting. Pricking out refers to the removal of seedlings from a nursery bed to a seedling bed. Nursery practices refer to all the activities carried out throughout a nursery life to raise seedlings. . Importance of Nursery Bed in Crop Production To facilitate the production of many seedlings in a small area. It is easy to carry out management practices in a nursery than in the seedbed. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 22 It facilitates the planting of small seeds which develop into strong seedlings that are easily transplanted. It ensures transplanting of only healthy and vigorous growing seedlings. It reduces the period taken by the crop in the field. Excess seedlings from the nursery may be sold to earn income. Selection of a Nursery Site Factors to consider; Nearness to the water source. Type of soil.-should be well drained, deep and fertile, preferably loam soil. Topography.-it should be situated on a gentle slope to prevent flooding and erosion through surface run-off. Previous cropping.-to avoid build up of pests and diseases associated with particular plant families, consider the preceding crops. Security.-select a site that is protected from theft and destruction by animals. Protection against strong winds and heat of the sun.-select a sheltered place. I.e. to avoid excessive evapotranspiration and uprooting seedlings. Types of Nurseries Categories of nurseries: Vegetable Nursery: They are used for raising the seedlings of vegetable crops. Tomatoes, cabbages, kale, onions, brinjals and peppers. Vegetable Propagation Nurseries: They are used for inducing root production in cuttings before they are transplanted, The cuttings can be planted directly in the soil and hence called bare root nurseries.


Types of Nurseries Categories of nurseries: Vegetable Nursery: They are used for raising the seedlings of vegetable crops. Tomatoes, cabbages, kale, onions, brinjals and peppers. Vegetable Propagation Nurseries: They are used for inducing root production in cuttings before they are transplanted, The cuttings can be planted directly in the soil and hence called bare root nurseries. Or planted into containers such as pots, polythene bags and others, hence called containerized nurseries. Tree Nurseries: These are used for raising tree seedlings. The seedlings can be raised in bare root nurseries or in containerized nurseries. Nursery Management Practices: These are the practices carried out in the nursery while the planting materials are growing. They include: Mulching. Light mulch should be applied on thenursery bed. It be should be removed on the 4th day Weed control. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 23 Shading. Pricking out. Pests and disease control. Hardening off Watering. Preparation of vegetative materials for planting: Cuttings -These are plant parts such as stems, leaves and roots induced to produce roots and used as planting materials. Grafting It is the practice of uniting two separate woody stems. The part bearing the roots is referred to as root stock while the part which is grafted onto the rootstock is known as scion. The scion has buds which develop into the future plant. The ability of the rootstock and the scion to form a successful union is termed as compatibility. Methods of Grafting Whip or tongue grafting: In this case the diameter of the rootstock and the scion are the same. It is carried out when the diameter of the scion and the rootstock is 'pencil' thick. Side grafting: In this case the diameter of the rootstock is bigger than that of the scion. Other types of grafting include ; Approach grafting, Notch grafting Bark grafting. Budding: It is the practice of uniting a vegetative bud to a seedling of another plant.


Side grafting: In this case the diameter of the rootstock is bigger than that of the scion. Other types of grafting include ; Approach grafting, Notch grafting Bark grafting. Budding: It is the practice of uniting a vegetative bud to a seedling of another plant. The scion has only one bud and some bark with or without wood. The bud is inserted in a slit made on the bark of the stock. It is held tightly on the stock by tying with a budding tape until it produces a shoot. Methods of Budding: T-budding Top budding Patch budding. Importance of Budding and Grafting: Plants with desirable root characteristics but with undesirable products may be used to produce desirable products for example lemon-orange graft. They facilitate the changing of the top of the tree from being undesirable to desirable For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 24 They make it possible to grow more than one type of fruit or flower on the same plant. They help to propagate clones that cannot be propagated in any other way. They help to shorten the maturity period. Layering It is the process by which a part of a plant is induced to produce roots while still attached to the mother plant. Once the roots have been produced, the stem is then cut off and planted. Types of layering; Marcotting or aerial layering. Tip layering. Trench layering. Compound or serpentine. Tissue Culture for Crop Propagation Tissue culture is a biotechnology used in cloning vegetatively propagated plants. It is based on the ability of plant tissue or cells to regenerate other parts of the plant. The tissues are derived from shoot tips where cells are undergoing rapid cell division and are not differentiated. The cells are then provided with the right conditions which enable them to multiply and develop roots. The Right Conditions for tissue culture: Culture medium. Correct temperature. Correct light intensity and Correct relative humidity. Importance of Tissue Culture in Crop Propagation It is used to recover and establish pathogen-free plants especially in the control of viral diseases. It is used in mass production of plantlets or propagules. It is fast and requires less space than the cultural methods of using cutting which requires a bigger space.


Importance of Tissue Culture in Crop Propagation It is used to recover and establish pathogen-free plants especially in the control of viral diseases. It is used in mass production of plantlets or propagules. It is fast and requires less space than the cultural methods of using cutting which requires a bigger space. Transplanting Seedlings Transplanting of vegetable and tree seedlings are generally the same. Generally, vegetable seedlings are ready for transplanting when they are one month old or have 4 -6 leaves or are about 10-15cm in height. Before transplanting, the nursery bed is adequately watered 3 - 4 hours before lifting the seedlings. This ensures the seedlings are lifted easily with a ball of earth around the roots to minimize root damage. Tree seedlings take a little longer to reach transplanting age compared to vegetable crop seedlings. The roots are trimmed before lifting the seedlings. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 25 Transplanting should be done at the onset of the long rains to give the young trees a good start. After transplanting the young trees should be protected from damage by animals for a period of about one year. Crop production IV Field Practices I Introduction Field practices are activities carried out on the field to facilitate proper growth and maximum yield of the various crops grown. They include the following: Crop Rotation Mulching R0uting field practices Crop protection Harvesting Crop Rotation This is the growing of different types on the same piece of land in different seasons, in an orderly sequence. Importance of Crop Rotation Maximizes use of nutrients and moisture. Breaks the life cycle of pests and disease agents. Maintains good soil structure. Reduces soil erosion due to adequate soil cover. Controls weeds that are specific to certain crops e.g. striga on cereals Improves soil fertility when legumes are included in crop rotation. Factors Influencing Rotational Programme Growth habits and nutrient req uirements. Liability to soil erosion. Crops attacked by the same pests and diseases should not follow one another in the programme. Availability of capital and market for example beans or peas in legumes.


Liability to soil erosion. Crops attacked by the same pests and diseases should not follow one another in the programme. Availability of capital and market for example beans or peas in legumes. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 26 Mulching This is the placement of materials such as banana leaves or polythene sheets on the ground next to the growing crop. These materials should not come into contact with the base of the crop as they may encourage pest attack. Importance of Mulching Reduction of evaporation rate. Smothers weeds. Moderation of soil temperature. Reduction of speed of run offs. Types of Mulching Materials Organic mulching materials such as; Sawdust, wood shavings, coffee pulps, rice husks, Dry grass, banana leaves, dry maize stalk, napier grass. Inorganic or synthetic materials commonly used are either black or transparent polythene sheets. Advantages of Mulching Prevents water evaporation thus maintaining moisture in the soil for crop use. Acts as an insulator thus modifying the soil temperature. It helps to control soil erosion. It controls weeds by suppressing them. After decomposition organic mulch add nutrients to the soil thus improving its fertility. Humus produced after the decomposition of organic mulch improves soil structure and the water holding capacity of the soil. Disadvantages of Mulching It is a fire risk. Provides a breeding ground as well as a hiding place for pests that finally may attack the crops. Traps the light showers of rainfall thus lowering the chances of rain drops reaching the soil. It is expensive to acquire, transport and apply. Routine Field Practices Thinning Removal of excess, weak, damaged or diseased seedlings. Allows the remaining seedlings to get enough nutrients and moisture. It is aimed at obtaining optimum plant population. Gapping Filling the gaps so as to maintain proper plant population. Gaps occur as a result of failure of seeds to germinate or dying of seedlings. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 27 It should be done early enough for the seedlings to catch up with the other plants Rogueing This is the removal and destruction of a diseased part of a plant or the whole plant. The destruction can be achieved through burning of the uprooted plant.


Gaps occur as a result of failure of seeds to germinate or dying of seedlings. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 27 It should be done early enough for the seedlings to catch up with the other plants Rogueing This is the removal and destruction of a diseased part of a plant or the whole plant. The destruction can be achieved through burning of the uprooted plant. Pruning Removal of extra unwanted parts of the plant. Reasons for pruning are: To remove old, unproductive or diseased, damaged parts of the plant. To train plants to take a desirable shape for example formative pruning in tea. To control crop leave ratio hence avoiding overbearing. To control diseases and pests for example antestia bugs in coffee. To facilitate other operations such as spraying, picking and seeding. To reduce wastage of chemicals applied on the crop. To remove branches that interfere with traffic, telephone lines and view. Open up the plant to allow free air circulation and exposure of leaves to sunlight. Note: Tools used are secateur, pruning saw and pruning knife. Earthing-up This is the placement of soil in form of a heap around the base of the plant. It is mostly carried out in tuber crops such as Irish and sweet potatoes to improve tuber formation. It is also carried out in groundnuts and maize. In groundnuts it promotes production of pods while in maize it provides support to prevent lodging. Crop Protection Weed Control Weeds are plants growing where they are not wanted, that is a plant out of place. Such plants include blackjack, couch grass, thorn apple and Mcdonald's eye. Such plants should be eradicated or controlled using recommended methods. Pest Control Crop pests are living organisms that are harmful to the crops. They include; insects, nematodes, rodents, thrips and mites. They cause great damage to crops in the field and stored produce. Control of Crop Diseases A disease is any alteration in the state of an organism and functions of a plant or its parts. Disease causing organisms are known as pathogens. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 28 They include fungi, viruses and bacteria. Diseases caused by fungi are referred to as fungal diseases while those caused by viruses and bacteria are referred to as viral and bacterial respectively.


Disease causing organisms are known as pathogens. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 28 They include fungi, viruses and bacteria. Diseases caused by fungi are referred to as fungal diseases while those caused by viruses and bacteria are referred to as viral and bacterial respectively. Harvesting It is the gathering or of the farm produce after maturity. Time of harvesting depends on: Stage of maturity of the crops. Use of the crop. Tastes and preferences of consumers. Weather conditions, hence liability to spoilage. Moisture. Methods of harvesting is determined by: Scale of farming for example large scale farming machines are used. Type of crop for example pyrethrum is harvested by hand. Uniformity in ripening of the crop for example wheat is harvested by use of combined harvester while coffee is harvested by hand. Uniformity in height of the crop and size of seed, fruits and flowers. Financial status of the farmer. Part of the plant to be harvested. Post-Harvest Practices These are the preparations carried out on crop produce before it gets to the consumer. They include; Threshing shelling. Drying. Cleaning. Sorting and grading. Dusting. Processing. Packaging. Storage Purpose of storage is to; Prevent spoilage Make the produce available for future use To await good market prices. Requirements for proper store are: It should be clean. It should be well ventilated. It should be raised from the ground to prevent damp conditions. It should be dry. It should be strong to hold crop produce. It should be easy to clean. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 29 It should be vermin-proof. It should be secure from theft. It should be treated against pests such as weevils. Types of Storage Traditional storage structures. Modern storage structures. Preparation of the Store Cleaning the store. Maintenance Dusting the store with appropriate chemicals. Clearing the vegetation around the store to keep off vermin. Crop Production V: Vegetables Introduction A vegetable is any crop that is grown and eaten fresh. Vegetables are important both for nutritional and commercial reasons. They are categorized on the basis of the part used as food.


Crop Production V: Vegetables Introduction A vegetable is any crop that is grown and eaten fresh. Vegetables are important both for nutritional and commercial reasons. They are categorized on the basis of the part used as food. Such parts include; Leaves, Stems, Roots, Fruits, Flowers, Pods Bulbs. Vegetables are grouped into the following categories: Leaf vegetables for example kales and cabbages. Root vegetables for example carrots, beets, radishes and turnips. Fruit vegetables for example French beans and okra. Stem vegetables for example asparagus, leeks and spring onions. Bulb vegetables for example bulbed onions and garlic. Tomatoes Lycopersicon esculentum Tomatoes are fruit vegetables widely grown in Kenya. The ripe fruit may be eaten raw cooked or processed to make tomato sauces, juices and pastes. Ecological Requirements Altitude: 0-2100m above sea level. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 30 Rainfall: 7S0-1300mm per annum. Soils: deep, fertile and well drained. Varieties Fresh market varieties: Money maker, Marglobe, hundred fold, Beef eater, Hot set, Super marmande Ponderosa. Processing varieties: Kenya beauty, San -marzano, Roma, Heinz 13S0, Primabel, Rutgers hybrid Cal- J. Nursery Practices Choose a site which has not been grown Solanaceae crop in the last three years. Nursery beds are raised about 15cm above the ground level. Make drills of 20cm apart and 1cm deep drill and cover the seeds. Provide shade or mulch material. Water twice a day. Apply phosphatic fertilizers during planting. Seedbed Preparation The land should be dug deeply to control weeds. Transplanting Seedlings are ready for transplanting when they are 10-15cmhigh after about one month. Holes are made at a spacing of 60cm x 90cm. Apply 20gm of DSP in the planting hole.


Transplanting Seedlings are ready for transplanting when they are 10-15cmhigh after about one month. Holes are made at a spacing of 60cm x 90cm. Apply 20gm of DSP in the planting hole. Transplant with a ball of soil around the roots. Apply mulch around each seedling. Transplanting is normally in the evening or on a cloudy day. Field Maintenance Early control of weeds is necessary. Top dressing is done after crop establishes. Pruning and staking are done to train the plants to grow vertically. Pests Controls American Bollworm Nature of damage: boring holes on the fruits. Control: spraying insecticides. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 31 Tobacco White Fly Nature of damage: suck plant sap from the underside of the leaf, hence may transmit viral diseases. Control: Destroy infected plant and spray insecticides. Disease Control Late Blight Cause: Fungus Symptoms: dry patches on the leaves and fruits. Control: use of fungicides, crop rotation and destruction of affected materials. Blossom-end Rot Caused by; Too much nitrogen in early stages. Irregular or infrequent watering. Calcium deficiency. Control: Apply calcium ammonium nitrate and correction of the above problems. Harvesting For canning, fruits should be fully ripe. For fresh market, fruits should be partially ripe and packed in crates to avoid damage. The fruits should be graded according to; Size, Colour, Ripeness Freedom from blemishes. Cabbage It is a leaf vegetable related to other brassica crops such as kales, cauliflower, Chinese cabbage and Brussels sprouts. Cabbage leaves may be eaten raw in salads, steamed, boiled or cooked in a variety of ways. The leaves can also be fed to livestock. Ecological Requirements Altitude: Those with small heads: 900-1500m above sea level Those with Large heads: 1800-2700m above sea level. Temperature: require cool condition. Rainfall: 750-2000mm per annum. Should be well distributed throughout the growing period.


Temperature: require cool condition. Rainfall: 750-2000mm per annum. Should be well distributed throughout the growing period. Soils: Deep, For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 32 Fertile Well drained. Varieties Early maturing: Brunswick, Sugar loaf, Early jersey, Copenhagen market, Chinese cabbage, Celery cabbage, Cafe splits kool Gloria, mukuki, Golden acre . Late maturing: Drumhead, Savoy, Perfection, Winningstadt. Nursery Practices The beds should be raised, dimension 1 m wide and any convenient length usually 23m in length . Make drills of 15-20cm apart. Sow seeds by drilling and cover to a depth of 1 cm. Provide shade or mulch material. Apply phosphatic fertilizers and mix thoroughly with soil during planting. Water twice a day. Seedbed Preparation Cultivation should be done during the dry season so that all the weeds are killed. Dig holes at the spacing of 60cm x 60cm. Incorporate farm yard manure in the soil. Transplanting Water the seedlings before uprooting. Seedlings are ready for transplanting after one month that is when they are 1O-15cm in height. Select healthy and vigorous seedlings. Transplant the seedlings with balls of soil to prevent root damage. Plant to the same depth as they were in the nursery. Field Maintenance Apply fertilizers during planting and top dress later. Control weeds to reduce competition. Pest Control For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 33 Diamond Black Moth Damage: Eats the underside of the leaf making windows or holes in the leaf. Control: Spray recommended insecticides. Cutworms Damage: Attacks the stem at the ground level causing he plant to fall. Control: Spray recommended insecticides. Disease Control Black Rot Cause: Bacteria Symptoms: Leaves turn yellow and rotting of the stem giving an offensive odour, Control: Closed season, crop rotation, use certified seeds and spray appropriate chemicals.