In 1964, a new constitution was formulated as a way of solving the political problems that plagued Zaire soon after independence. Zaire became a federal state with a federal president and separate assemblies for each state. On 23rd November 1965, Joseph Desire Mobutu organized a bloodless military coup, which removed the civilian government of president Kasavubu and Prime Minister Sylvester Kimba. In November 1965, Mobutu took over power after a bloodless coup. In the same year, , Mobutu banned all political parties. He suspended the constitution and parliament. He abolished the federal system and local assemblies and reduced the number of provinces to eight. In 1967, He formed the Peoples Revolution Movement MPR , which became the only legal party in Congo. He in effect-replaced democracy with one-party dictatorship leaned to the west during the cold war. 1n 1970, Mobutu declared himself the life president of Congo, after winning the presidential election. In 1971, he outlawed the use of European names for people, places and physical features as a way of removing colonial legacy. The country was renamed Zaire. His own name changed to Mobutu Sese Seko. Leopoldville was renamed Kinshasa. In 1973, Mobutu announced the nationalization of all foreign enterprises. In 1977-1978, the Shaba Rebellion broke out mainly after an attack by the Congolese National Liberation Front from their base in Angola. The Belgian troops were called to silence the rebels. In 1990 and 1991, multiparty activists stepped up pressure for change. In September 1991, dissatisfied soldiers and civilians held demonstrations, which led to death of 117 people. In 1997, Laurent Kabila successfully ousted Mobutu, assisted by Rwanda and Uganda. Mobutu fled to exile in Morocco where he died. In January 2001, Laurent Kabila was assassinated in mysterious circumstances. His son took over power. In April 2002, through a power-sharing agreement presided over by Thabo Mbeki and a UN envoy, Mustapha Niasse, a government of national unity was formed. Economic developments in DRC since independence. The political chaos inn DRC up to 1965 did not favour any economic progress.


In April 2002, through a power-sharing agreement presided over by Thabo Mbeki and a UN envoy, Mustapha Niasse, a government of national unity was formed. Economic developments in DRC since independence. The political chaos inn DRC up to 1965 did not favour any economic progress. During the Page 78 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke reign of the Belgians in Congo, no viable economic development was initiated. Little development was done in infrastructure in order to facilitate transportation of raw materials to the ports of Matadi etc. At independence, the country was faced with the problems of shortage of manpower, skills and entrepreneurship. When Mobutu took over, there was some slight economic progress. Transport and communication improved as more roads and railway were constructed to link major towns of Matadi, Kinshasa, Lubumbashi and Kisangani. Navigation on the river Congo was improved, which led go expansion of mining and agricultural sectors. Mining of diamonds resumed after the turbulent years and resulted in reduced inflation. Mobutu encouraged foreign investment in the mining sector. However, the fall of world copper prices in 1970s again began to derail the economic growth in DRC. In the 70s, the government nationalized foreign firms employed inexperienced people to control them. In 197, Mobutu enacted a law that placed state finances and expenditure under him, thus reducing the flow of capital to the provinces. In 1976, he encouraged mutual cooperation between private firms and the government in the extraction of minerals such as copper, oil, diamond, cobalt and manganese in a bid to create employment opportunities. He also emphasized on diversification of the economy which greatly boosted food production. The entertainment industry has also grown to become an invisible export through repatriation of profits back home by the foreign based musicians. Energy supply has been increased through the construction of the Luga hydro-electric power station. Social developments and challenges in DRC since independence. Between 1961 and 1965, there was little improvement in the field of health and education in DRC due to constant power struggles and civil strife. When Mobutu took over in 1965, he strived to expand schools and universities. For example, by 1970, he had established three universities. He also improved on the provision of health facilities.


When Mobutu took over in 1965, he strived to expand schools and universities. For example, by 1970, he had established three universities. He also improved on the provision of health facilities. He banned religious education in schools In 1971, attempted to revive indigenous culture through the Authenticity programme that involved renaming places that had foreign names. In the 1970 s, in an effort to improve the welfare of citizens, a national insurance programme was established. Mobutu also gave prominence to music as part of the Congolese curriculum. The independent government supported sporting activities through construction of stadium and other sporting facilities. However, living standards in Zaire continued to fall as health services, water and sanitation continued to be inadequate. The steady rise in population was without a commensurate growth of social services. In summary, the common challenges socially were illiteracy, extreme poverty, famine Page 79 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke and diseases caused by civil strife, massive unemployment, refugee problem and religious persecutions by Mobutu. Political challenges that the democratic republic of Congo has faced since independence. A There was general lack of preparedness of the people for independence. Foreigners controlled even the army and the police. B The assassination of Patrice Lumumba in 1961, which plunged the country into the Congo crisis. C Political instability military coup d tat. In November 1965, Mobutu organized a military coup. In 1997, Kabila ousted Mobutu d Ethnic differences tribal clashes civil wars, which split the country into two parts at independence. One controlled by Lumumba and another controlled by Kasavubu. E The problem of Secession. Secessionist movement of the Katanga region Shaba led by Tsombe and Kasai under Kilonji seceded. F Foreign interference intrigues. Belgium constantly interfered and intervened in Zaire s internal matters. France and Britain also began to interfere from 1977 during the cold war period. G Mutinies in the army were common. Economic challenges that Democratic Republic Of Congo D.R.C faced in 1970 s. a Corruption and mismanagement of the economy. Mobutu was the richest president in the world while Zairians became the poorest people in the world. B Inflation due to power struggle and corruption.


A Corruption and mismanagement of the economy. Mobutu was the richest president in the world while Zairians became the poorest people in the world. B Inflation due to power struggle and corruption. By 1980, the country s currency was not worthy the paper on which it was printed. C There was also a problem of heavy foreign debt. The country was unable to service her debts. By 1980, Zaire had become the world s third biggest debtor nation. D There was a standstill in the economic activities and disruption of railway transport due to civil wars in the country and neighbouring Angola. E The period also witnessed fall in world copper prices and increase in oil prices f Lack of a sound economic policy TANZANIA. Political developments in Tanzania since independence. At the time of independence, Tanzania comprised of two countries. I.e. Tanganyika and Zanzibar. Tanzania became independent in 1961 under Julius Nyerere while Zanzibar became independent in 1963 under the Sultan Seyyid Abdullah. In 1962, Tanzania became a one-party state with a republican constitution and an executive president. Tanganyika African National Union TANU became the sole political party. On 22nd April 1964, Julius Nyerere and Sheikh Abeid Karume signed a union document. Nyerere became the executive head of state and government while Karume as the first vicepresident. In 1967, president Nyerere adopted the ideology of African Socialism through the Arusha Declaration Page 80 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke In 1972, the first Vice-president, Sheikh Abeid Karume, was assassinated. Aboud Jumbe succeeded him as Zanzibar s president and the vice-president of Tanzania. In 1973, the capital of Tanzania was transferred from Dar-es-Salam to Dodoma. In 1967, the ruling party in the Mainland Tanganyika-TANU and Afro-Shirazi Party in Zanzibar merged to form Chama cha Mapinduzi CCM . Nyerere became the party chairman. In 1978-1979, president Idi Amin invaded Tanzania to annex the Kagera Province, which he claimed, was a Ugandan territory. Nyerere swiftly repulsed Ugandan soldiers.


The collapse of the East African Community also affected the economy of the country. After 1985, Nyerere s economic policies began to be challenged openly by scholars and economists When president Mwinyi took over, he undertook to reform the economy of Tanzania. Political challenges that Tanzania has faced since independence. Page 81 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke a There was an Army mutiny in Tanzania 1964, which threatened her political stability. B The socialism policy The Arusha Declaration received stiff opposition from many both internally and externally. People favoured capitalism. C The assassination of Abeid Karume in 1972 and the resignation of Aboud Jumbe in 1984 appeared to threaten the unity of the two members of the Union Declaration. D The invasion of Tanzania by Uganda in 1978.and the consequent war with Uganda was costly to the country. It also threatened her cooperation with neighbours. E There was an escalation of corruption among leading members of Tanzania s political elite, including claims that President Hassan Mwinyi and his family capitalized on liberalization to amass a lot of wealth. F the re-introduction of multiparty democracy tended to awaken tribalism and regionalism although this problem was contained. Social problems, which Tanzania faced since independence. A Famine and shortage of health services as the government adopted the Structural Adjustment Policies of IMF. B Poverty and a general drop in living standards as production dropped due to socialism. C Lack of social amenities, like clean water in rural areas. D High illiteracy level. E Unemployment. In Tanzania, industries closed after the Arusha declaration. F Population explosion which outstripped the country s resources g Terrorism. Tanzania was under terrorist attacks in 1997 targeting the American embassy. H Environmental pollution. I Over-crowding in urban areas. Economic challenges. A In the early years of independence, the proliferation of African enterprises led to the widening of the gap between the rich and the poor. B Under the ujamaa policy, the forced villagization programme did not satisfy communities in areas with favourable climate. They therefore strongly resisted it. C There was rampant rural-urban migration affecting mainly able-bodied men who felt exploited by the new system of production. D The abolition of cooperatives was met with stiff resistance with many farmers cutting down heir production.


They therefore strongly resisted it. C There was rampant rural-urban migration affecting mainly able-bodied men who felt exploited by the new system of production. D The abolition of cooperatives was met with stiff resistance with many farmers cutting down heir production. Other producers reverted to the black market. E The Tanzanian shilling became unstable due to price fluctuations of some commodities. F There was shortage of donor funds caused by the nationalization programme that was opposed by many donor countries. G The collapse of the East African Community in 1977 denied Tanzania a large common market for her goods SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL CHALLENGES IN AFRICA IN GENERAL. Political challenges that have faced African countries since independence Page 82 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke a The political systems that were inherited from the colonial governments seemed to be unworkable in many independent African states. B Sharp ideological difference arose among the pioneer leaders of African states. Such differences internally exploded into civil strife in countries like Mozambique, Angola and DRC. C The cold war had diverstating effects on Africa. It left many African nations divided and locked in border conflicts that continue up to date. D Political instability was quite common in African states. Coups d tat and military takeover was witnessed in Somalia, Zaire, Nigeria, Chad etc Human rights were violated with the rise of dictatorship. E There were strained relations between African leaders caused by personal and ideological differences. Some ended in border closure, which greatly undermined international cooperation. F Many national interests in Africa countries have been in conflict with global and continental interests. Nigeria and Zimbabwe, for example had to be expelled from the Commonwealth of Nations for alleged disregard of human rights and personal property. G Neo-colonialism. Most countries retain the colonial structures of parliament although they have difficulties in sustaining them. Multinational peacekeeping forces are still common in Africa, many African leaders inherited the divide and rule colonial strategy that precipitates anarchy. H The existence of different ethnic groups has contributed to ethnic wars as witnessed in Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan, Nigeria and Kenya. I Most African government seemed ill prepared and in experienced in administration. This resulted in rise of rebel movements, as was the case of Mozambique and Angola. Economic challenges facing independent African states today. A Unemployment and socio-economic inequalities both among individuals and between regions are common in may African nations.


This resulted in rise of rebel movements, as was the case of Mozambique and Angola. Economic challenges facing independent African states today. A Unemployment and socio-economic inequalities both among individuals and between regions are common in may African nations. B Overdependence on primary exports. The African economy is an extractive one rather than a manufacturing economy. Many countries depend on agriculture and foreign nations for manufactured goods. C World trade terms are not fair for African nations. Africa countries find themselves trading with former colonial powers that give low prices fort raw material from Africa and charge high process for the manufactured goods. D There has been the problem of unfavourable climatic conditions. This has curtailed food production, particularly among agricultural communities. E Population pressure has led to overstretching of social services. There is a high dependency ratio since the population is largely youthful and unemployed. F Poor economic planning. Some economic policies have destabilized the economies. For the Ujamaa policy in Tanzania, the expelling of foreign investors in Uganda and the massive printing of money in Zaire. Page 83 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke g The tough conditions given by donor agencies have sometimes led to deterioration of social welfare. Retrenchment for example was a key prescription of the Structural Adjustment Programme. H Corruption and embezzlement of public funds is common in African countries. There is also general lack of transparency among many leaders. Social challenges that have faced African states since independence. A Inaccessibility to clean water by majority of the people. Most African peoples rely on water fetched from sometimes contaminated streams across long distances. B The challenge of HIV AIDS pandemic. This has had a toll on productive members of the society. C Poor housing facilities.. in urban areas, majority of the population live in slums without sanitation facilities. D The challenge of high population growth rate. This affects the quality of the services provided by governments. E Language problem. Language development and use has been a challenge in Africa. In many countries, conflict tends to arise over the language to adopt- local or the inherited one. F Religious differences. This challenge has been the main cause of the splitting of the once largest country in Africa-Sudan in 2011. The predominantly Christian southern Sudan has become the youngest African state thanks to religious differences. G Absence of practical systems of education. Many countries rely on theoretical education with little emphasis in technical skills.


The predominantly Christian southern Sudan has become the youngest African state thanks to religious differences. G Absence of practical systems of education. Many countries rely on theoretical education with little emphasis in technical skills. DEVOLVED GOVERN MENT. Devolution This refers to the granting of power from the central government to a lower level such as a region or a local level. A Devolved Government is a system of government where there is a transfer or allocation of authority from a central government to a regional government. In a devolved government, power and resources are decentralized with part of the political and economic decision making transferred to the people through the locally established assemblies. Origin of devolution in Kenya. Page 84 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke The Lancaster House Conference of 1962 forms the basis of devolution in Kenya. When the independent constitution was drawn during the conference, a federal system of government as proposed by the KADU delegates was adopted in Kenya. It made provisions for six regions. The legislature was to comprise two chambers the Senate or upper House and the Lower House However after independence in 1963, the Kenyatta Government began plans to scuttle the system of government. By December 1964, KANU and KADU merged to form a unitary government of the republic of Kenya. The enactment of the new constitution on 27th August 2010 reintroduced the concept of devolution in Kenya. Kenya is divided into 47 Counties each governed by A County Governor with the assistance of the County Executive Assembly. The National Government seats in Nairobi. To change County Boundaries, the Following must be considered; a Population density and demographic trends. B Physical and Human infrastructure. C Historical and Cultural Ties. D The cost of administration. E The Views of the communities affected. F The objectives of devolution of government. G Geographical features. Reasons why devolved governments were established in Kenya. A They were established as a means of promoting democratic and accountable exercise of power. B To Foster national unity by recognizing diversity. C To give powers of self-governance to the people and enhance the participation of the people in the exercise of the powers of the State and in making decisions affecting them. D To recognize the right of communities to manage their own affairs and to further their development. E To protect and promote the interests and rights of minorities and marginalized communities.


C To give powers of self-governance to the people and enhance the participation of the people in the exercise of the powers of the State and in making decisions affecting them. D To recognize the right of communities to manage their own affairs and to further their development. E To protect and promote the interests and rights of minorities and marginalized communities. F To promote social and economic development and the provision of services throughout Kenya. G To ensure equitable sharing of national and local resources throughout Kenya. H To facilitate the decentralization of State organs, their functions and services, from the capital of Kenya; i To enhance checks, balances and the separation of powers. Principles of devolution of government in Kenya. A County governments shall be based on the democratic principles and separation of power. B County governments shall have reliable sources of revenue to enable them to govern and deliver services effectively. Page 85 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke c No more than two-thirds of the members of representative bodies in each county government shall be of the same gender. Structure and Functions of a county government in Kenya. The county government is composed of County assemblies, county executive committees and county public service. County Assembly in Kenya. A county assembly consists of Members one member per ward elected by the registered voters of the wards in a general election. Members of special seats no more than two-thirds of the membership of the assembly is of the same gender. Members of marginalized groups, including persons with disabilities and the youth. The Speaker, who is an ex officio member. Nb-The members for special seats and marginalized communities are nominated by political parties in proportion to the seats received in the election in a particular county. Conditions for seeking election to a County Assembly. A The person must be a registered as a voter in his her county. B The person must have been a Kenyan citizen for atleast ten years before the elections. C The person must be able to read and write in English and Kiswahili. D He or she must be of sound mind. E The person must be of unquestionable morals and ethics f If a public officer, he she must relinquish his her public work. G The person must be nominated by a political party h If he she is an independent candidate, must be supported by at least five hundred registered voters in the Ward concerned. I The person must not have been declared bankrupt.


E The person must be of unquestionable morals and ethics f If a public officer, he she must relinquish his her public work. G The person must be nominated by a political party h If he she is an independent candidate, must be supported by at least five hundred registered voters in the Ward concerned. I The person must not have been declared bankrupt. J The person must not have served a sentence of imprisonment of more than six months. K Must not have been a member of IBEC within five years before the date of election. L The person must not have misused or abused a State or public office. Functions of a county assembly. A County assemblies make laws for the effective performance of the county government. B It acts as a watch dog over the county executive committee. C It receives and approves plans and policies for managing and exploiting the county s resources, d It approves policies for developing and managing the infrastructure and institutions in the county. E It enhances legislation that may set out the structure and framework for the better administration and management of county governments. F It approves oversight budgets and development projects within the county. G It approves investment decisions and loans. Page 86 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke h It supervises other units within the county through political authority, guidance and direction. I Monitors the execution of projects under approved development plans, and assesses and evaluates their impact on development in the county. The process of law making in a county government. It is the duty of the County Executive committee, comprising of the governor, the deputy governor and ten other members to draft the details of the proposed legislation with no bias. The public servants in the county governor s office participate in preparation of the proposed law. The county executive committee then presents the proposed legislation to the county Assembly. The members of the county assembly are then free to make their contributions to the bill during the discussion and debate that follows. Amendments and improvements may be proposed to the bill at this stage. The recommendations are incorporated If the members are in favour of the bill, and if it is in conformity with the National Government legislation, then it is approved to become a by-law of the county government The structure of The County Executive Committee. The executive authority of the county is vested in the county executive committee. The committee consists of The county Governor and the Deputy County Governor.


The recommendations are incorporated If the members are in favour of the bill, and if it is in conformity with the National Government legislation, then it is approved to become a by-law of the county government The structure of The County Executive Committee. The executive authority of the county is vested in the county executive committee. The committee consists of The county Governor and the Deputy County Governor. Not more than ten other Members appointed by the County Governor, with the approval of the assembly, who are not members of the assembly. If the assembly has less than thirty members, the members should be One-third of the number of members of the county assembly. The county governor and the deputy county governor are the chief executive and deputy chief executive of the county respectively. Members of a county executive committee are accountable to the county governor for the performance of their functions and exercise of their powers. The members of the county executive committee cease to hold office once the office of the county governor falls vacant. Functions of a County Executive Committee. A It implements county legislation. B It implements, within the county, national legislation. C It manages and coordinates the functions of the county administration and its departments. D It prepares proposed legislation for consideration by the county assembly. E It provides the county assembly with full and regular reports on matters relating to the county. Powers and functions of a governor in a county government. Page 87 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke a The Governor is the chief executive officer of the county. The Executive Branch of government, headed by the Governor, includes executive departments and advisory boards. B The Governor is the Chairman of county executive committee. C he she is in charge of implementing , within the county, national legislation to the extent that the legislation so requires; d He ensures, through the county executive committee, the implementation of county legislation. E He manages and coordinates the functions of the county administration and its departments. F He provides the county assembly with full and regular reports on matters relating to the county. G He appoints with the approval of the assembly members, members to the county executive committee. H He ensures that Members of a county executive committee perform their functions and exercise of their powers fully. I He handles on behalf of the county, all external affairs with other counties in consultation with the central government. Excluding any which have been delegated to cabinet secretaries. .


H He ensures that Members of a county executive committee perform their functions and exercise of their powers fully. I He handles on behalf of the county, all external affairs with other counties in consultation with the central government. Excluding any which have been delegated to cabinet secretaries. . J The Governor prepares and submits a budget of the county for the following fiscal year. K He sets the terms and conditions of service of persons holding or acting in public offices in the county. L By virtue of his office, the Governor serves on certain boards and special commissions in the county. The Governor chairs the Board of Public Works. Election of a county governor. The county governor is directly elected by the voters registered in the county at a general election for a term of 5 years. To be eligible for election as county governor, a person must be eligible for election as a member of the county assembly. Each candidate for election as county governor nominates a person as his her running mate to be the deputy governor. If re-elected, can serve for another final term of 5 years. Each candidate for election as county governor nominates a person as his her running mate to be the deputy governor. A County Governor can be removed from office under the following circumstances. A Gross violation of the Constitution or any other law. B When the county governor commits a crime under national or international law. C When the governor abuses office or is accused of gross misconduct. D When he she suffers from Physical or mental incapacity that hinders performance of the functions of office. Functions of a deputy governor. Page 88 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke a As the deputy chief executive of the county, he or she assists the governor in the management and coordination of the functions of the county administration. B He or she acts as the governor of the county when the governor is absent. C The deputy assists the governor in the supervision of work of the county executive committee. D Since he she is a member of the county executive committee, he participates in legislation by also preparing proposals for county legislation. E He assumes governorship of the county incase the governor is incapacitated or is removed from authority for various reasons. Functions and powers of a county government.


D Since he she is a member of the county executive committee, he participates in legislation by also preparing proposals for county legislation. E He assumes governorship of the county incase the governor is incapacitated or is removed from authority for various reasons. Functions and powers of a county government. A County governments have the duty to assist in promotion of agriculture by initiating development in specific areas like crop and animal husbandry, livestock sale yards, slaughterhouses control of plant and animal diseases and development of fisheries. B It provides and supervises county health services, both public health and personal health of county members. C It assists in control of environmental pollution by putting in place legislation to regulate and control air pollution, noise pollution and outdoor advertising. D It promotes cultural activities, public entertainment and public amenities ion the county by putting in place structures such as libraries, museums, sporting facilities, casinos, beaches and county parks. E It has a duty to promote and regulate education at the pre-primary, polytechnic, craft and childcare levels. F It has a duty to develop transport facilities in the county through road construction, street lighting, developing ferries and harbours and parking areas. G The county government regulates county planning and development through land survey and mapping, boundaries, housing, electricity, gas and energy regulation. H It implements specific national government policies on natural resources and environmental conservation. I It also puts in place measures to control drug abuse and access to pornography. Relationship between national and county government. A Governments at either level must exercise their powers and functions in a manner that respects the functional and institutional integrity of government at the other level. B Each of the two governments must assist, support, consult and implement the legislation of the other level of government. C Either of the two governments must liaise with government at the other level for the purpose of exchanging information, coordinating policies and administration and enhancing capacity. D Governments at each level or different level should co-operate in the performance of functions and exercise of powers. E In any dispute between governments, reasonable efforts to settle dispute should be made. F County governments rely on Procedures provided under national legislation in Page 89 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke settling intergovernmental disputes between them. G Parliament at national level has the role of ensuring that county governments have adequate support to enable them to perform their functions.


E In any dispute between governments, reasonable efforts to settle dispute should be made. F County governments rely on Procedures provided under national legislation in Page 89 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke settling intergovernmental disputes between them. G Parliament at national level has the role of ensuring that county governments have adequate support to enable them to perform their functions. H County governments must operate financial management systems that comply with any requirements prescribed by national legislation. I National government is permitted to take any measure on county government provided that Notice must be given to county government. J Where a county government is unable to perform its functions, or does not operate a financial management system that complies with national legislation requirements, the national government may intervene. Challenges facing county governments in Kenya. A County governments have inadequate funds. Some are located in areas of limited resources. This impedes provision of essential services. Some are too small to operate efficiently. B Corruption and misappropriation of funds is common in most counties. This is because those vested with the management powers do not have experience since the appointment of governors is through popular vote. C Rural -urban migration is likely to generate population pressure in urban based counties like Nairobi city and Mombasa. Urban problems like mushrooming of slums, poor garbage disposal and insufficient sanitary facilities arise. D There is likely to be national government interference in the affairs and management of county legislation. This hinders free decision-making. E Election of ward members to manage ward affairs may hamper operations of the counties especially in legislation. Possible solutions to the challenges that may face county governments in Kenya. A The National governments through the Equalization Fund should be able to provide adequate financial support to County governments located in areas of limited resources. This will assist in provision of essential services. B Those counties that are too small to operate efficiently should be merged with others in terms of social service delivery. C There should be stricter vetting of candidates to vie for positions of county Governors and deputy county Governors in order the possible challenge of financial management and corruption. D Urban-based counties should be given more funding by the National Government to enable them solve urban related problems. E The National government should come up with means on how to curb Rural -urban migration. This may be done through creation of employment generating opportunities in rural counties.


D Urban-based counties should be given more funding by the National Government to enable them solve urban related problems. E The National government should come up with means on how to curb Rural -urban migration. This may be done through creation of employment generating opportunities in rural counties. F The county governments, especially those that are in economically viable areas should be given financial autonomy and a free-hand in decision making, by the national government. PUBLIC REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE IN KENYA. SOURCES OF PUBLIC REVENUE. Page 90 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Public finance refers to revenue and expenditure of the national and county government. Principles that govern the use of public finance in Kenya. A The principle of openness and accountability. There shall be public participation in financial matters. B The public finance system should promote an equitable society, and in particular the burden of taxation should be shared fairly. C Revenue raised nationally should be shared equitably among national and county governments. D Expenditure of public finance should promote the equitable development of the country, including making special provision for marginalized groups and areas. E The burdens and benefits of the use of resources and public borrowing should be shared equitably between present and future generations. F Public money should be used in a prudent and responsible way. G There should be responsible financial management accompanied by clear fiscal reporting to ensure effective use of public funds. NATIONAL BUDGET. The national budget is a comprehensive statement that gives an estimate of public revenue, expenditure and financial plans for a given financial year for a government. Components of the national and county governments budgets in Kenya. A Estimates of revenue and expenditure, differentiating between recurrent and development expenditure. B Proposals for financing any anticipated deficit for the period to which they apply. C Proposals regarding borrowing and other forms of public liability that will increase public debt during the following year. The process of Budget preparation and implementation in Kenya. Three months before the end of each financial year, the head of each department or State organ submits estimates of revenues and expenditures for the following year to the secretary for finance. Two months before the end of each financial year, the Cabinet Secretary for finance submits to the National Assembly estimates of the revenue and expenditure of the national government for the following financial year.


The process of Budget preparation and implementation in Kenya. Three months before the end of each financial year, the head of each department or State organ submits estimates of revenues and expenditures for the following year to the secretary for finance. Two months before the end of each financial year, the Cabinet Secretary for finance submits to the National Assembly estimates of the revenue and expenditure of the national government for the following financial year. He also submits a detailed national fiscal, monetary and development plan for a period of three years prepared by him in collaboration with the Secretary responsible for planning and national development. The estimates include estimates for expenditure from the Equalization Fund. The National Assembly then considers the estimates submitted together with the estimates submitted by the Parliamentary Service Commission and the Chief Registrar of the Judiciary. Before the National Assembly considers the estimates of revenue and expenditure, a committee of the Assembly will discuss and review the estimates and make recommendations to the Assembly. Committee makes its recommendations to the National Assembly. Page 91 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke When the estimates have been approved by the National Assembly, there will be an Appropriation Bill, introduced into the National Assembly to authorize the withdrawal from the Consolidated Fund of the money needed for the expenditure. The Appropriation Bill will not include expenditures that are charged on the Consolidated Fund. The process of Budget preparation and implementation in a county government. Further reading about this is encouraged. Sources of public revenue for national government in Kenya. Domestic Revenue Sources. These are the taxes levied on citizens, private and public organizations, foreign investors and business people. There are two main groups of taxes; 1. Direct taxes. 2. Indirect taxes. 1. Direct taxes. Income tax These are taxes derived from people s salaries in form of income tax. 2. Indirect taxes. These are taxes levied on goods and services but with parliamentary approval. They include; a Value-added tax; an indirect sales tax paid on specific goods such as sugar, bread, petroleum products, clothes, electronic equipment and motor vehicles. B Customs duties:- there are duties on imported goods such as motor vehicles, machinery, fertilizer, sugar, wheat, electronics, luxury goods, etc. C Excise tax; this is charged on locally produced goods that are sold within the country. D Export Duty; the duty charged on locally produced goods such as textiles, coffee, tea, soda ash and pyrethrum which are exported.


B Customs duties:- there are duties on imported goods such as motor vehicles, machinery, fertilizer, sugar, wheat, electronics, luxury goods, etc. C Excise tax; this is charged on locally produced goods that are sold within the country. D Export Duty; the duty charged on locally produced goods such as textiles, coffee, tea, soda ash and pyrethrum which are exported. E Trading Licenses; f Sales Stamp Duty; on entertainment services, betting, casino and premium bonds. G Traffic Revenue tax; levied on various categories of traffic services. E.g., the Road Maintenance Levy, the driver s licence, Airport tax by air passengers. H Investment Revenue; earned from parastatal and other profit making bodies that remit profits through the treasury. I Loan interest receipts. Collection of taxes from parastatals like AFC, KTDA, KPC, NCPB and KCB. J Land Rates. K House rates. L Fees; paid in terms of timber levies, CO2 levies and mining fees. M Court Fines n Borrowing under laid down law or procedure . O Tourism fess External Revenue Sources There are two main sources of external assistance; 1. Bilateral Aid; where two friendly nations assist each other. E.g. Kenya and Japan Page 92 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 2. Multilateral Aid; many countries form trading blocs or global institutions like World Bank, IMF, European Union and commonwealth for this purpose. Sources of finance for county governments. A The main source of funding for many counties is their equitable share from 15 of the national budget. B Conditional and unconditional grants. Unconditional Grants are funds allocated by the national government without conditions regarding their use. Conditional grants are the funds allocated by the national government for funding of specific projects and programmes. They include; The Equalization Fund for provision of basic services like water, health services, electricity and roads in marginalized areas. The Contingencies Fund to carter for urgent and unforeseen circumstances c Counties own revenues. Counties have the power to collect property rates, impose taxes on entertainment, and impose fees and charges for services they render to people and any other tax that Parliament permits them to impose. D Borrowing, where the national government guarantees the loan or with the approval of the county assembly.


The Contingencies Fund to carter for urgent and unforeseen circumstances c Counties own revenues. Counties have the power to collect property rates, impose taxes on entertainment, and impose fees and charges for services they render to people and any other tax that Parliament permits them to impose. D Borrowing, where the national government guarantees the loan or with the approval of the county assembly. E Grants and donations Factors that determine equitable sharing of public finance. A The national interest. B Any provision that must be made in respect of the public debt and other national obligations. C The needs of the national government, determined by objective criteria. D The need to ensure that county governments are able to perform the functions allocated to them. E The fiscal capacity and efficiency of county governments. F Developmental and other needs of counties. G Economic disparities within and among counties and the need to remedy them. H The need for affirmative action in respect of disadvantaged areas and groups. I The need for economic optimization of each county and to provide incentives for each county to optimize its capacity to raise revenue. J The desirability of stable and predictable allocations of revenue. K The need for flexibility in responding to emergencies and other temporary needs. Regulations that govern imposition of taxes and charges in Kenya. A Only the national government may impose Income tax, Value-added tax, Customs duties and other duties on import and export goods; and excise tax. B An Act of Parliament may authorize the national government to impose any other tax or duty. C A county may impose property rates, entertainment taxes, and any other tax that it is authorized to impose by an Act of Parliament. D The national and county governments may impose charges for services. E The taxation and other revenue-raising powers of a county should not be exercised in a way that prejudices national economic policies, economic activities across county Page 93 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke boundaries or the national mobility of goods, services, capital or labour. F No tax or licensing fee may be imposed, waived or varied except as provided by legislation. G If permitted, a public record of each waiver shall be maintained together with the reason for the waiver; and each waiver, and the reason for it, should be reported to the Auditor-General. H No law may exclude or authorize the exclusion of a State officer from payment of tax.


F No tax or licensing fee may be imposed, waived or varied except as provided by legislation. G If permitted, a public record of each waiver shall be maintained together with the reason for the waiver; and each waiver, and the reason for it, should be reported to the Auditor-General. H No law may exclude or authorize the exclusion of a State officer from payment of tax. The revenue collected by the government is deposited into the following funds; 1. Equalization Fund; This is a Fund specially established by the National government, to provide basic services including water, roads, health facilities and electricity to marginalized areas to the extent necessary to bring the quality of those services in those areas to the level generally enjoyed by the rest of the nation. 2. Consolidated Fund; this is the fund into which all the money raised or received by the national government is paid. Money set aside by parliament for specific purpose and money set aside by state organs to take care of their expenses is however not deposited in this fund. 3. Contingencies Fund; this is a fund from which advances will be made if the secretary for finance is convinced that there is an urgent matter that needs funding and for which there is no other provisions. 4. Revenue Funds; this is a fund for each county into which all the money raised or received by the county government is paid. Expenditure of Public Revenue. There are two ways in which the national government spends its revenue. 1. Capital expenditure. -. The money set aside in the national budget for development projects. 2. Recurrent expenditure. -. The money used by the government to sustain and maintain the existing facilities. How the national government spends its money under recurrent expenditure. A The government remunerates its employees through regular payment of salaries and wages. B The expenditure is also used to maintain public property throughout the country by allocating necessary funds to roads, airports, colleges, school text book provision and bridge maintenance. C The money is also used to service debts from international donor agencies and local financial institutions. D The money is also used to contribute to regional and international organizations like COMESA, AU, UN and Commonwealth. E It is used to provide grants to counties and parastatals, and bursaries to schools and colleges. F The money is also used to maintain Kenyan embassies abroad. Page 94 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke County government expenditure.


E It is used to provide grants to counties and parastatals, and bursaries to schools and colleges. F The money is also used to maintain Kenyan embassies abroad. Page 94 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke County government expenditure. County governments spend their monies in the following ways; a Provision of basic social services like water, health facilities, electricity and cemeteries. B The money from its recurrent expenditure is used to pay wages and salaries to its employees. C The counties spend their money to some extend to control air and noise pollution, and also on refuse removal and solid waste disposal. D Money is used to finance development of roads, parking facilities, ferries and street lighting, develop entertainment, sporting, trading and cultural facilities. E In repair maintenance and improvement of public facilities like roads, health facilities, markets, libraries, housing etc. F Some money is set aside as emergency utility for fire fighting services and disaster management. G The counties use their money to service the borrowed funds plus the interest accrued. H They also use money to provide early childhood education through development of nursery schools. They also develop village polytechnics and home craft training centres. Ways through which proper management of public finances by national government is ensured in Kenya. A Any national governments expenditure by state departments or state organs must be approved by parliament which acts as the public watchdog. B The controller of budget oversees the implementation of the national budget by authorizing legal withdrawals from public funds such as the equalization fund, consolidated fund and contingencies fund c The controller of budget submits to each house of parliament report on the implantation of the budget of the national government. D Where a state organ or any other public body fails to adhere to the laid down procedures of expenditure, the cabinet secretary for finance, with the approval of parliament, may stop the transfer of funds to the body. E There is constant auditing of accounts and financial records of all government and other public bodies. F Every public body has a n accounting officer who is accountable to the national assembly for the financial management of the public body. G The auditor general audits all accounts of all government and state organs. H The government has put up policies related to procurement which is supposed to be fair, transparent, competitive and cost effective. To regulate public procurement, various bodies have been set up.


G The auditor general audits all accounts of all government and state organs. H The government has put up policies related to procurement which is supposed to be fair, transparent, competitive and cost effective. To regulate public procurement, various bodies have been set up. E.g the public procurement oversight authority PPOA , the public procurement administrative review board PPARB i The government has also imposed sanctions against contractors who fail to fulfil their contractual agreements either by failing to complete jobs or by doing shoddy work. Page 95 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke j Sanctions are to be imposed against those persons who fail to pay their taxes, or engage in corrupt practices. K All government contracts are publicly advertised for awarding of tenders and awards. L The government established the Kenya Anti-Corruption Commission KACC in 2004 which has the function of investigating corrupt cases in a non-partisan manner. Management and expenditure of public finances in county governments. A In every county, there is established a revenue fund where all funds, including the county s own revenues, transfers from national revenues, grants and borrowed funds are consolidated. B Money from this fund is only withdrawn following specific procedures authorized by parliament or by county laws. C County governments must operate financial management systems that comply with all requirements of national legislation. D The county assembly must vote on the budget and approve expenditure by various departments of the county. E The county treasury must seek quarterly approvals from the controller of budget for withdrawal from the revenue fund based on the needs of the county. F The accounting officer of a county organ or public body is accountable to the county assembly for the financial management of the public body. G Each county has a county accountant general who maintains financial records of all the funds withdrawn from the revenue fund, and expenditure incurred. H Apart from the internal audits in every county, the auditor general audits the accounts of the county governments and submits reports to the relevant county assembly. The controller of Budget. Role of the controller of budget. A He or she oversees the implementation of the budgets of the national and county governments. B He or she authorizes withdrawals from the public funds such as the Equalization, Consolidated and Revenue Funds. C he or she submits to each house of parliament, every four months, a report on the implementation of the budgets of both national and county government Auditor General.


By elections in the event of resignation, death or resignation of a member of parliament. There are also local elections in which representatives of local authorities councillors are voted for are held every 4 years. The local authorities include the District Councils, London Boroughs, Metropolitan districts and Regional and island councils. In Britain, there are also euro-elections, first introduced in 1979, in which representatives to the European Union parliament are chosen.81 MPs were elected in 1979. Voter Registration. It is the local authorities that hold the responsibility of registering voters. Since 1948, a postal vote is possible for citizens who are away from their constituencies during the voting period, either on business or other reasons. The following categories of people qualify to vote in Britain; a British Citizens over the age of 18 years. B Citizens from commonwealth countries who have resided in Britain for periods stipulated by law. C Citizens of the republic of Ireland who have been residents for periods stipulated by law. The following are ineligible to vote in Britain. Page 98 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke a Persons of unsound mind. B Convicts detained in a prison. C Persons convicted of corrupt or illegal practices in connection with elections cannot vote for five years from the date of conviction. D Adults whose names do not appear on the register of voters. E Peers or members of the House of Lords A candidate who wishes to contest for a parliamentary seat in Britain must fulfil the following conditions; a He she must be a British citizen or a common subject or a citizen of the republic of Ireland. B He she must be of a minimum age of 21 years. C He she must be nominated by a political party or be an independent candidate. The following are disqualified from vying for a parliamentary seat in Britain. A English Scottish peers who have the right to sit in the House of Lords. B Clergy of the Church of England, or the Church of Ireland, Ministers of the church of Scotland, and Roman Catholic priests. C Aliens. D Certified Lunatics. E Undisputed bankrupts. F Convicted persons. G Persons who have committed illegal practices during elections like corruption. H Members of the armed forces. Candidates vie for 650 parliamentary seats.


G Persons who have committed illegal practices during elections like corruption. H Members of the armed forces. Candidates vie for 650 parliamentary seats. The candidates are either nominated by respective parties or stand as independent candidates and need not reside in the constituencies as long as they register as voters in that constituency. Once nomination of candidates has taken place, campaigns are allowed for two weeks before voting Each candidate appoints an election agent to manage the finances and protect the interests of the candidate during he campaign. The agent also explains the candidate s party policies and identifies party supporters within the constituency. He she familiarizes the candidate s name to prospective voters. Election officials work hand in hand with party agents during Election Day. Each candidate must deposit 500 sterling pounds with the registrar, which is returned in the event that the candidate garners over 5 of the total vote in the constituency. Elections in Britain are by plurality. Candidates who get the highest of votes win the elections. The party that secures most parliamentary seats is declared winner and is asked to form the next government. Emphasis is on number of seats not votes cast. The House of Lords members are drawn from people with high offices. E.g. bishops, distinguished scientists and artists, great sportsmen, retired judges etc Functions of Government in Britain. The British government operates around four basic institutions; a The Monarchy. B The Legislature. Page 99 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke c The Executive. D The Judiciary. The Monarchy. In Britain, the Monarchy is represented by the queen. The Monarch assent to all legislations. The Monarch appoints the PM and approves the cabinet Other Functions of the Monarchy. A The monarch as head of state advises government b The monarch summons, prorogues and dissolve parliament in consultation with the Prime Minister. C The Monarch gives royal assent to bills passed by parliament to become law. D Management of the country s foreign policy including enactment of treaties. E It confers honours to persons who have rendered distinguished services. For example, the peerages to become Lords or knights and will be referred to as LADY OR Sir f The Monarch approves appointment s to important state offices such as judges, senior members of the armed forces and civil service. G The monarch pardons and gives reprieve to people who have been accused of committing various offences.


E It confers honours to persons who have rendered distinguished services. For example, the peerages to become Lords or knights and will be referred to as LADY OR Sir f The Monarch approves appointment s to important state offices such as judges, senior members of the armed forces and civil service. G The monarch pardons and gives reprieve to people who have been accused of committing various offences. H The Monarch appoints Bishops and Archbishops of the Anglican Church. NB; At the beginning of each new session of parliament, the monarch addresses both Houses together in the House of Lords to mark the formal opening of parliament. In the address, the monarch outlines government proposed legislations for the coming session. Importance of the monarchy to the British people. A The presence of the monarchy helps to give some continuity to executive policy. B It inspires the head of government with a sense of responsibility and dignity. C It acts as a useful counsellor to the head of government. D It is the symbol of commonwealth unity. E It sets standards for social life. The presence of members of the royalty at the inauguration of scientific, artistic and charitable works ensures nationwide support. F The royal family pays state visits to foreign government and undertakes tours in other countries of the commonwealth, hence contributing to better understanding between Britain and other nations. The Legislature parliament. It is made up of the monarchy, House of Lords and House of commons. The following are ways through which one can gain membership to parliament in Britain; a Elections. B Nominations c Inheritance. D By Virtue of office. E.g. members of the House of Lords maintain their parliamentary seat whenever a new parliament is constituted. Parliament is a supreme institution in Britain. It passes changes or repeals laws without being vetoed by the courts of law. How parliamentary supremacy is demonstrated in Britain. A Parliament makes amends and abolishes laws. No other institution can do that. Page 100 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke b Branches of government operate under the laws passed by parliament. Parliament is the supreme institution in Britain and all other institutions derive their power from it. C Parliament can pass a vote of no confidence in the executive. Has powers to remove any unpopular government from office. D It approves government revenue and expenditure.


It is the major legislative arm of the government. It comprises 650 elected members representing constituencies. The leader of the House is the P.M. The chief officer is the speaker who is elected at the start of a new parliamentary session. Functions of the House of Commons. Page 101 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke a Discusses makes and amends laws. However, the monarchy and the house of Lords have powers to veto such laws. B Approves government revenue and expenditure. It controls finances. No taxes can be imposed without the consent of the House of Commons. C It has powers to pass a vote of No confidence in the executive Check the powers of the executive to ensure that the rule of law is maintained. D Debates on matters of national interest. E It directs government policy and keeps development programmes on track. F It is a training ground for future leaders. Factors which influence the activities of Parliament in Britain. A Members of the House of Commons must consider the moral values of the British society before making any decision. B Parliamentarians are always sensitive to public opinion because any unpopular government or party risks not being re-elected. C Local authorities are empowered to make by-laws even without consulting parliament. D Interests of the institutions under the spotlight are always taken into account before legislation is done in parliament. E.g. the Church, Universities, Farmers, trade Unions etc. E Legislation passed by one parliament can be changed by another future one. F International law is also taken into account when laws are made. NB; these are the factors that limit the parliamentary supremacy in Britain. The executive. The executive is made up of the Prime Minister, the cabinet and the civil service. The Prime Minister. Appointed by the monarch, being the leader of the political party that controls an absolute majority, He she is the Chief executive of the country. He performs the following functions; a Appoints and dismisses Cabinet ministers with the consent of the monarch. B He she recommends to the sovereign the appointment of senior civil servants such as the chief Justice, High Commissioners. C He she represents Britain in international fora. D He she controls the cabinet secretariat and oversees the execution of cabinet decisions by various departments. E He she is the leader of the party that nominates him her. F He she settles disputes between various departments.


D He she controls the cabinet secretariat and oversees the execution of cabinet decisions by various departments. E He she is the leader of the party that nominates him her. F He she settles disputes between various departments. G He she is the leader of the House of Commons. H He she initiates both domestic and foreign policies. The Cabinet. The cabinet is made of the ministers appointed by the P.M with the approval of the monarch and nominated from the party with the majority of seats. The cabinet performs the following functions; a The cabinet ministers institute policies that guide the operations in the various departments of the ministry. Page 102 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke b Cabinet determines the policy to present to parliament for consideration. C Cabinet is responsible for the coordination of government activity. E.g. all ministers must implement cabinet decisions with regard to their department. The following conventions provide guidance on the operation of the cabinet; a Once a government is defeated, on a major issue or on a vote of no confidence, it is expected to resign. A government whose party is defeated in General elections is expected to resign. B The cabinet is drawn from the House of Commons and the House of Lords. C The entire cabinet comes from the same political party of majority seats except during a crisis like war. Since 1945, Britain has never embraced a coalition. D The advice offered by the cabinet must be accepted by the monarch, failure to which a crisis can occur. E All members of the cabinet take the Oath of the Privy councillors and are bound to Secrecy by this oath and the official secrets Act. F Members of the cabinet are collectively responsible for all decisions and actions as well as individually responsible of the departments they head. The Civil Service The British law stipulates the civil servants are servants of the crown. A civil servant is expected to non-partisan and to serve the government of the day without favour. Civil service staff does not change with change of government. Recruitment In the civil service is based on merit. Functions of the civil Service in Britain. A It implements ministerial policies as agreed by parliament. B It assists in formulation of policies and generation of policy proposals. C It manages government administrative machinery. D It carries out normal duties that public administration demands. Principles that characterize the British civil service. A The tradition of anonymity.


D It carries out normal duties that public administration demands. Principles that characterize the British civil service. A The tradition of anonymity. Civil servants are taken to be carrying out the instructions of minister. Ministers get all the credit for all good, as well as censure for all that is criticized. B The principal of civil service impartiality. Those civil services are expected to serve whichever minister is in office without partiality. Senior civil servants are not permitted to take part in national politics except voting. C Ministers make policies and civil servants execute the policies. D The tradition of assumption that it is not the task of the civil service to initiate change or take responsibility for planning future lines of social and economic development. The Judiciary. The judiciary in Britain is based on the supremacy of the law. To safeguard the rule of law, the British Judiciary has an independent court system. How judicial independence is ensured in Britain. A The salaries of judges are not open to discussion by parliament. B Since 1701, judges have always bee appointed on good behaviour until retirement. C A Judge can only be dismissed by a resolution from both houses. The structure of the British Court System. Page 103 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Further reading encouraged components of the British constitution. E Statutes or acts of parliament e.g. act of union with Scotland of 1707. F Customs-the accepted traditions e.g. the first-born of the sovereign succeeds the king queen. G Law of precedence-judges applies accepted principles to new set of facts. H Custom of parliament e.g. the procedures of the two houses. I Historical documents e.g. the Magna Carta. THE USA The origin of USA dates back to 1776, when the thirteen British Colonies declared their independence from Britain. USA is a federal government, a form of representative democracy comprising a union of 50 states The adopted a new constitution in 1787 and has the following features. A It is Federal in nature. B A written constitution. C Bill of rights is contained in it. D The Supreme Court can only interpret it. E Legislature is Bi-cameral i.e. the senate the House of Representatives forming the congress two houses. F It caters for the separation of powers. G Does not provide for secession of a member state.


The senate the House of Representatives forming the congress two houses. F It caters for the separation of powers. G Does not provide for secession of a member state. H Federal government and individual states share power through their senators in congress i.e. in making laws. I The president is the head of the federal government and governors are heads of state. J It is the supreme law of the land. K Amendment can only be done through a clearly laid down procedure. The electoral process in USA. There are three types of election held in USA. A The election of the president. B Congressional elections c The state election involving election of state governors and state legislatures. All candidates vying for various seats must be American citizens and must be residents in the area they aspire to represent Age limit is 25 years for the representatives and 35 years for the president. During the lection year party primaries are held between March and May to choose presidential candidates. Party conventions are held in July to confirm winners of the primary elections. Each presidential candidate picks a running mate who becomes the vice president if the presidential candidate wins. Presidential elections are held after every 4 years on 2nd November . The election of the president is determined indirectly by the Electoral College that comprises electors appointed by each state. When a presidential candidate wins the popular vote in a state, he automatically wins all the Page 104 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke state s electors. Direct elections are done through popular vote of one man one vote. Senators and members of the House of Representatives are elected after every two years. Senators serve for a period of six years with a third of them elected after every 2 years. Members of the House of Representatives serve for four years and are elected on party basis. Each state elects 2 representatives to the senate making a total of 100 senators for the 50 states. Election of House of Representatives is on the basis of state population. For example, the largest state, California has 52 representatives while Wyoming, the smallest has only one representative. State governors and legislators are elected after every 4 years. Features of the US system of government. A The federal government is made up of the legislature, executive and the judiciary. B Each state within the federal government functions as a republic and enjoys equal status.


Features of the US system of government. A The federal government is made up of the legislature, executive and the judiciary. B Each state within the federal government functions as a republic and enjoys equal status. C The federal government and independent states share the power of formulating and enforcing laws. D All states have their constitutions but they should not be contradicting to the Federal Constitution. E The Supreme Court interprets the constitution. F The congress Senate and the House of Representatives is the body entrusted with legislative powers. G Senate membership is through popular vote of two members from each state for a period of six years. H The House of Representatives members are elected for a period of two years based on the size of the population. However, each state has to have at least one representative. I All treaties and appointments by the president have to be ratified by the senate. J Presidential vote must be supported by two thirds of the votes of the house. K The Supreme Court made up of the chief justice and eight associate judges heads federal judiciary. L The president appoints federal judges with the approval of the senate. M Courts in the judiciary include the court of appeal, the district courts and other special courts, all formed by the congress. N All criminal cases are handled in the courts except the cases of impeachment, which are voted by the house with the approval of the senate. O Foreign policy and Defence is the preserve of the Federal Government. Features of the state governments of U.S.A. a Each state has a governor. B Each state has a law court those carters for internal affairs. C Each state provides educational, health facilities and public amenities for the welfare of the residents. D Each state is responsible for its own development. E Each state generates its own revenue necessary for discharging its responsibility. F Each state has a bicameral legislature. Page 105 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke g Each state has a state police that maintains law and order. Limitations of state governments in USA. A No state is permitted to enter any treaty, alliance or confederation with other states or countries. B No state may make her own currency. C States are forbidden, unless congress approves, to levy duties on imports or exports. D States are prohibited from maintaining armed forces.


B No state may make her own currency. C States are forbidden, unless congress approves, to levy duties on imports or exports. D States are prohibited from maintaining armed forces. E States are prohibited from entering into any agreement with foreign powers or engaging in war. How the conduct of USA president is checked a The senate approves presidential appointees to executive positions. B Congress can refuse to approve the use of government funds for a foreign policy it disagrees with. E.g. war. C The congress can impeach a sitting president if his conduct while in office is wanting. D The Supreme Court has powers to declare that the president has acted unconstitutionally, a verdict which can damage his status. E Any president is limited by the constitution to two four-year terms in office. F Opinion polls normally reflect the wishes and feelings of the American people, which the sitting president cannot ignore. G The mass media monitors and reports to the general public every action or speech of the president. Functions of the political parties in USA a Make electoral policies coherent. B The party level helps voters to sort out through the candidates as parties usually stand for different policies. C Parties help to put the desire of the people on the government policy agenda. D Parties provide outlets for citizens to express their sentiments about nominees. E Political party system provides accountability when the policies of the party fails voters hold candidates accountable. Differences existing between the House of Representatives and the senate in terms of membership. A The house of representatives is larger with more than 436 members whereas the senate has only 100 members. B The house of representatives has short period of office 2 years but the senate is on for a long period of office 6 years c Members of the House of Representatives arte elected by constituencies whereas the senate is elected by the state. D Easier qualification for candidates for membership to the House of Representatives. The senate demands stricter qualifications. E The house of representatives is less prestigious than the senate. F Rules of the House of Representatives are more rigid than the rules governing the senate. Functions of the USA president. A He is the head of state. Page 106 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke b He appoints cabinet ministers and senior civil servants with approval of the congress. C He is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.


N Candidate age limit is 30 years and above.functions of a prime minister in India.a He is the head of the federal government b He is the leader of the house to which he belongs. He can be either a member of the rajya sabha upper house or lok sabha.c As head of the council of ministers, the prime minister oversees the work o all the ministries.d Chairs cabinet meetings, which are normally held in the cabinet room of the prime ministers office.e Guides the president on appointment to the cabinet.f Participates in the law-making process as a member of the lok sabha. Page 107 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke g The prime minister has traditionally been the minister-in-charge of the department of space, atomic energy and the ministry of personnel, public governance and pensions h Recommends persons for presidential awards.functions of the Electoral Commission of India.a Prepares electoral registers b Setting dates for polling.c Establishing and operating polling station.d Allocation party symbols.e Publishing electoral report.f Accepting or rejecting nominations as per the law.g Counting the votes.h Drawing constituency boundary. What conditions must one fulfill to be elected president in India a He she must be a citizen of India.b He she must have attained the age of 35 and above.c He she should not hold any office.d He she should be qualified to be elected as a member of the house of the people. The lok sabha functions of the cabinet in the government of India.a Formulation of policy issues affecting the management of the government of India.b Defends the government policy.c Ensures that the civil servants implement government policy.d Advises the president.e Gives approval to the budget and estimates of the expenditure.f The cabinet exercises general direction and control of government departments. Page 108 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke.


It is basically the buying and selling of goods. Trade originated during the New Stone Age. During this period, man began a settled lifestyle. He became specialised in various activities such as weaving, pottery and livestock keeping. This specialisation made some people to produce certain items which others did not produce. The need of satisfying various essential material needs therefore led to emergence of trade. Methods of Trade Barter trade and currency trade are the two existing forms of trade in the world. Barter trade. Barter trade is the oldest method of trade in the world. It existed even during the Old Testament time. Barter trade exists even today. This occurs when people exchange goods for other goods. In this case no established medium of exchange is used. In certain occasions, services are exchanged for goods. The goods may also be exchanged for services. Barter system was very popular before the introduction of money. For instance a cow could be exchanged for a number of goats. A basket of millet could be exchanged for a basket of maize or beans. The people of ancient Ghana exchanged their gold with the people of North Africa for salt. This form of trade did not succeed very well where there was language barrier. Barter trade exists even today. In Kenya, certain commodities e.g. agricultural products are exchanged for machinery and oil. Advantages of barter trade were: 1. There was direct exchange of goods or services for goods. 2. It encouraged people who were exchanging goods for goods to get involved in actual production of the items. This kept the communities busy. 3. Barter trade enabled people who had no goods for exchange to acquire goods they wanted by merely rendering services to those who had. 4. It enabled people to acquire the goods they did not produce themselves. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 2 Disadvantages of barter trade were: a Barter trade was not very convenient because sometimes people could not acquire the commodities they intended to exchange their goods for. For example one may have intended to exchange a bag of maize with a bag of millet just to find that there was no millet in the market. B The method was tiresome because all those who wanted to exchange goods had to carry those goods to the market sometimes for long distances. C Since in normal trade there is a buyer and a seller, it became difficult to specify who the buyer or seller was because both were just exchanging items and there was no specific buyer or seller.


For example one may have intended to exchange a bag of maize with a bag of millet just to find that there was no millet in the market. B The method was tiresome because all those who wanted to exchange goods had to carry those goods to the market sometimes for long distances. C Since in normal trade there is a buyer and a seller, it became difficult to specify who the buyer or seller was because both were just exchanging items and there was no specific buyer or seller. D It was difficult to transport bulky goods to the market. E It was difficult to value goods being exchanged to ensure that the deal was fair for both parties exchanging items. F Barter trade was not very successful where the people exchanging goods had no common language to ease communication. G It was not easy to exchange certain items such as a bull or a donkey because if the other party did not have sufficient goods for exchange, a bull or a donkey could not be split into smaller units to match with the goods available. The Currency trade This method of trade involves the use of money as a medium of exchange. The medium of exchange must be acceptable and convenient to people. Money may be used to purchase commodities or to pay for services. Money is also used a measure of value. Today, people value their property in terms of money. Objects which have ever been used as money before the introduction of modern currencies are cowrie shells, iron bars, bronze, salt, gold and silver. The major world currencies are: i US Dollar ii German Deutsche Mark iii British Sterling Pound iv French Franc v Canadian Dollar vi Mexican Peso vii Japanese Yen viii European Union Euro For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 3 Advantages of currency trade are a It is easy to carry money when going to buy items because it is not heavy. B Money can be split into smaller units which enables people to purchase any quantity of goods in the market. C Items are valued easily in terms of Shillings, Dollars, Yen, Pound Sterling, etc. This makes the buyer to have an idea of the value of various items in advance. D Currency trade brings about clear definitions of the terms buyer or seller. In this case the buyer is the one who gives out money to acquire goods while the seller is the one who gives out goods to acquire money.


This makes the buyer to have an idea of the value of various items in advance. D Currency trade brings about clear definitions of the terms buyer or seller. In this case the buyer is the one who gives out money to acquire goods while the seller is the one who gives out goods to acquire money. E When one receives money for goods delivered or sold, he can save it in banks or store it without fear of any damage such as decay for a long time. Disadvantages of currency as a medium of exchange are i Currency can easily loose value purchasing power as it happened in Uganda during the era of President Idi Amin. Ii If there are no goods available for buying, money becomes useless. Many a times people have starved almost to death during famine due to shortage of food to buy with the money they have. Iii Use of currency in business has encouraged robbery, pickpocketting and many other forms of crime. Types of trade There are three types of trade namely: local trade, regional trade and international trade. Local Trade Local trade is the exchange of goods within the same community at the village level. It may also involve the neighbouring communities or people who share a common boundary. People who conducted local trade established markets on the community boundaries or in a central place where people from a number of villages met to exchange goods. People exchanged goods they had for the things they did not have. This type of trade exists in Kenya even today where local county councils have established markets in certain trading centres. Local trade covers a small area. The origin of local trade Local trade originated from the time early man began a settled lifestyle. It was facilitated by the need to acquire what one did not have from those For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 4 who had. The environmental differences also contributed the emergence of this type of trade. The development of local trade Local trade developed as human population increased. The increase in population led to demand for various items such as food, clothing, pots and ornaments. Some people became specialised in making iron tools, others in making items such as pots, baskets and bark-cloth while others became pastoralists and kept cattle, sheep and goats. The blacksmith obtained meat from the pastoralists and grains from the cultivators. The pastoralists needed knives and spears from the blacksmiths. The cultivators needed iron hoes; knives for harvesting; millet, sorghum and axes for clearing fields for cultivation.


The blacksmith obtained meat from the pastoralists and grains from the cultivators. The pastoralists needed knives and spears from the blacksmiths. The cultivators needed iron hoes; knives for harvesting; millet, sorghum and axes for clearing fields for cultivation. The demand for goods therefore encouraged local trade to develop and markets were established where people met to buy and sell things. The organisation of local trade People established markets at the most convenient places for all. They set market days when they would meet to exchange goods. At the beginning, the form of trade was mainly barter. Later there was introduction of money currency which acted as a medium of exchange. During this trade, people transported their commodities on their heads and backs. Some communities such as the Maasai used donkeys to carry their goods to the markets while the Somali and the Boran used camels. People who traded were provided with security by local leaders. Some established local merchants bought the items and resold them to other traders far away beyond the local boundaries. For example ivory was sometimes bought from the local markets in Samburu and Baringo and then transported to the coast where it was bought and shipped to Asia. The impact of the local trade Local trade led to intermarriages between people of different villages and people of neighbouring communities. It contributed to the unity of family members who constituted a community. This is because the interaction of people in the markets united them. Local trade enabled people to acquire what they did not have from those who had. It laid the basis for other types of trade such as the regional and the international trade because some of the goods sold at regional and international levels were bought from local markets by the traders and eventually sold far away from the sources. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 5 Local trade enabled some people such as Chief Kivoi of Ukambani to acquire skills in trade thereafter becoming experienced long distance traders. Where members of one community traded with members of another community there was development of languages through word borrowing as well as cultural exchange. In this case members of each community would borrow some cultural practices which became known to them as they interacted in the markets. Regional Trade Regional trade is the exchange of goods within a specified part of a continent or region. It can be trade between different communities in a region who are living apart. This trade involves a bigger geographical area than the one covered by local trade. It also involves more traders.


It can be trade between different communities in a region who are living apart. This trade involves a bigger geographical area than the one covered by local trade. It also involves more traders. An example of regional trade is the Trans-Saharan trade. The origin of the Trans-Saharan trade It is not known exactly the time this trade started but it was going on between 1000AD and 1500AD. The people of West Africa and those from North Africa exchanged goods from very early times even before the Sahara dried up into a desert. The desert trade was later revolutionised by the introduction of the camel in the first century AD. The development of the Trans-Saharan trade The Trans-Saharan trade began developing after the introduction of the camel which replaced the use of oxen and horses which were used by traders before the Sahara turned into a desert. The people involved in this trade were the local inhabitants of West Africa such as the people of ancient Ghana, Mali and Songhai. There were also desert communities like the Tuaregs, the Berbers and the Arabs from North Africa. Later Europeans and Jewish traders who had settled along the North African coast became engaged in this lucrative trade. The people of West Africa Western Sudan sold Gold, ivory, slaves, gum, ostrich feathers, colanuts and hides and skins to the people of North Africa and in return obtained horses, silk cloth, beads, cotton cloth, spices, mirrors, needles, dried fruits and salt from the North African traders. The salt sold was obtained from Targhaza, Taodeni and Ghadames while the gold brought for sale was obtained from Wangara, Bure and Budu mines. The main trade routes were that which connected Fez and Sijilmasa in Morocco with Audaghost in West Africa and passed through Targhaza. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 6 The other started from Tunis in Tunisia through Ghadames, Ghat and Agades in the Sahara desert to Hausaland. Another one ran from Sijilmasa through Tuat, Gao and reached Timbuktu. The other one started from Tripoli and went past Fezzan to Bornu via Bilma. There were several other minor ones which made the trade routes to resemble a cobweb. All these routes touched the salt mines in the desert as salt was a commodity of trade very much needed by the people of western Sudan.


The other one started from Tripoli and went past Fezzan to Bornu via Bilma. There were several other minor ones which made the trade routes to resemble a cobweb. All these routes touched the salt mines in the desert as salt was a commodity of trade very much needed by the people of western Sudan. Some Trans-Saharan trade routes and sources of goods The Trans-Saharan trade developed due to the following reasons: 1. The trade commodities which the traders from both sides demanded were available. 2. The trade goods themselves were in great demand. For instance the people of West Africa demanded salt while the people of North Africa demanded gold. 3. The West African rulers provided the traders with security. 4. The desert Tuaregs guided traders; provided them with water, food and accommodation; showed traders direction; acted as interpreters; provided traders with security while crossing the desert and cared for the oasis where traders obtained water. 5. There were established trade routes in the desert which provided considerable transport and communication services to traders. 6. There were enterprising professional merchants who conducted trade across the desert. 7. There were means of transport provided by use of camels, horses and donkeys. 8. There was sufficient capital to finance trade. 9. The local trade which existed in North Africa and West Africa laid the basis for the Trans-Saharan trade. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 7 The development of the Trans-Saharan trade was hampered by some of the obstacles traders encountered as they conducted their business across the desert. Some of these obstacles were: a Traders lost direction in the desert. B They were attacked by desert robbers. This occurred when the Tuaregs changed their role of guides to that of robbers. C vggbThe traders were affected by numerous sandstorms which blocked the routes they followed. D The trades were also affected by weather variations because sometimes it became too hot and at other times too cold. E The distance traders travelled across the desert was too long and scaring. F Traders were sometimes in danger of attacks by dangerous desert creatures such as snakes and scorpions. G There was communication barrier due to lack of a common language. This made it necessary for traders to use the Tuaregs as their guides and interpreters but later they became unreliable when they began stealing goods from traders. H There was lack of adequate basic needs such as food and water especially in the desert.


G There was communication barrier due to lack of a common language. This made it necessary for traders to use the Tuaregs as their guides and interpreters but later they became unreliable when they began stealing goods from traders. H There was lack of adequate basic needs such as food and water especially in the desert. Iii The organisation of the Trans-Saharan trade The Trans-Saharan trade was conducted by the people of western Sudan and the people of North Africa. The traders from North Africa crossed the Sahara desert by use of camels. The traders travelled in large caravans some with about 1000 camels and hundreds of people for security reasons. The Tuaregs and Berbers were recruited to act as guides takshifs to the traders. These guides provided the traders with security. It took about three months to cross the desert. For this reason the traders had stopping places at the oases where they bought food and water for themselves and for their camels. It is the Tuaregs who maintained the oasis and acted as interpreters. When the traders reached western Sudan, they sometimes gave their goods to the local agents on credit. The form of trade was mainly barter. The rulers of West Africa controlled the trade and provided security to traders. In return the traders paid taxes to the rulers. The main items of trade included gold, salt, horses, hides and skins, beads and cloth. When the time to travel back to North Africa reached, the North For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 8 Africa traders employed people to be left trading on their behalf. The merchants stored goods in specific gathering points which acted as distribution centres. They mainly travelled one way in a year. The problems the Trans-Saharan traders encountered The Trans-Saharan traders faced a lot of problems as they carried out their business. The traders travelled long distances across the Sahara desert. Their journeys were tiresome and they had insufficient food and water. Sometimes the trade goods became exhausted. The traders were frequently interrupted by hostile desert communities who wanted to steal their goods and by dangerous sandstorms which blocked their way. Traders lost direction and they were sometimes attacked by dangerous desert creatures. There were frequent shifts of trade routes. Traders were sometimes robed by desert dwellers. The impact of the Trans-Saharan trade The Trans-Saharan trade had several consequences: 1. The trade led to development of urbanisation for example towns such as Gao, Timbuktu and Jenne. 2.


The impact of the Trans-Saharan trade The Trans-Saharan trade had several consequences: 1. The trade led to development of urbanisation for example towns such as Gao, Timbuktu and Jenne. 2. The trade led to the decline of empires such as ancient Ghana and Mali while others such as Songhai emerged. 3. Islamic religion and culture were introduced. 4. Intermarriages between North Africans and West Africans were promoted. 5. The Trans-Saharan trade led to a class of wealthy merchants who participated in the trade. 6. New cultures were introduced such as eating habits and new styles of dressing. 7. The trade led to the introduction of foreign architectural designs in West Africa. 8. The Trans-Saharan trade contributed to the establishment and development of diplomatic ties between West Africa and North Africa. 9. There was growth of agricultural production as a result of the introduction of new crops. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 9 10. The sharia laws were introduced in the administration of West Africa. 11. The trade exposed Africa to the outside world. 12. The trade led to the development of communication between North and West Africa. The decline of the Trans-Saharan trade The Trans-Saharan trade began to decline in the 15th century and disintegrated completely in the 19th century following colonisation of West Africa by the Europeans. The factors which contributed to its decline were as follows: a The gold mines in western Sudan got exhausted. This discouraged traders from coming to West Africa because the main trading commodity was not available. B The Morrocans invaded West Africa in the 16th century. This undermined the trade because it created anarchy and insecurity in the region. The Morrocans wanted to capture this prosperous trade. C The political instability in West Africa together with the decline of empires such as Mali and Songhai increased anarchy and insecurity in the region. D West Africa was invaded by the Almoravids and the Tuaregs. This further increased insecurity along the major trade routes. E The Tuaregs who guided the traders changed their roles from that of guides to that of robbers. F The emergence of the Trans-Atlantic trade attracted the West African traders who were formerly involved in the Trans-Saharan trade. This led to reduction of the volume of goods and traders who participated in the Trans-Saharan trade. G The Turks invaded North Africa creating insecurity along the caravan routes.