G There was shortage of funds to implement the functions of the League of Nations. H The Appeasement Policy of Britain and France forced them to stand aside and avoid taking a firm action against Japan when she invaded china, Germany when she invaded and occupied Rhineland, and Italy when she attacked Ethiopia. The Second World War. The 1930 s witnessed the rise of dictators in Europe like Adolf Hitler of Germany, Benito Mussolini of Italy and General Francisco Franco of Spain who intentionally defied international opinion and disregarded the Versailles Treaty and League of Nations. Their activities and those of Japan began to interfere with prevailing peace in the world. This happened at the time when USA had retreated into isolation leaving the task of maintaining world peace only to Britain and France. The Second World War involved most countries in the world with millions of people conscripted for service in both the military and war related industries. Causes of the Second World War. A Germany s dissatisfaction based on territorial grievances. The Versailles treaty of 1919 imposed harsh and humiliating conditions on Germany, which aggrieved the Germans to the level of being ready to go to war again. B The rise of nationalism in Europe. In Germany, the chancellor, Adolf Hitler who had the desire to dominate the whole world, fuelled it. For example, he encouraged German speakers in Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia to demand independence from Czechoslovakia. Italy under Mussolini invaded Ethiopia, in 1939 to regain her lost glory and national pride after the Adowa defeat I 1896. Syria rose up against France. C Political developments in Europe. Page 13 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke In Italy in 1922, the fascist government under Benito Mussolini came to power. In Germany, Hitler s Nazi government assumed power in 1933. The Fascist government in Italy emphasized on the regaining of lost glory. The Nazi government began a fresh new policy of aggression. D The economic problems caused by the great depression of 1929 to 1931. The great slump led to widespread unemployment, declining wages, poverty etc. These led to social discontent and political unrest in many countries of the world. E The failure of Germany to pay reparations. This was followed by the French invasion of the Ruhr industrial region- a German territory. This led to increased tension. F Weakening of the League of Nations.


This was followed by the French invasion of the Ruhr industrial region- a German territory. This led to increased tension. F Weakening of the League of Nations. Japan left the League of Nations after protest over Manchuria, which she had grabbed, from china. Italy left the League of Nations after Mussolini had grabbed Abyssinia and annexed it against the will of the allies and Ethiopians. Russia invaded Finland in 1939 and the league was unable to intervene. There were many secret treaties among members of the league. G The Spanish civil war 1936-1939 . The republican revolution of 1931 ended the Spanish monarchy. The struggle between the royalists and socialists, however, continued. The European powers took sides in the civil war. France, Britain and Russia supported the royalists. Germany and Italy supported General Franco who was fighting from exile in Morocco. H Growth of military alliances. Hitler and Mussolini established a military pact in 1936 The Berlin-Rome Axis . It became the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis with the joining of Italy. The alliance between Russia and German to divide Poland widened the gap between them and the allied forces. It created fear and suspicion. I The invasion of Poland by Germany. This happened in September 1939 was the immediate cause of the war. This upset Britain and France, who stated their intensions of assisting Poland. They declared war on Germany in October 1939. COURSE OF WORLD WAR 2 The invasion of Poland by German forces on 1st of September 1939 and the subsequent declaration of war against Germany by Britain and France on 3rd of September 1939 marked the beginning of the Second World War. Meanwhile on 17th September 1939, the USSR attacked Poland from the East, as per the secret clause in the Nazi-Soviet act of August 1939. Poland had been overrun by German and Russian forces by 27th September 1939. The country was divided between Russia and Germany. The phoney war. This was a period during world war two when no major military operations were undertaken on the western front although war had been declared on Germany by France and Britain. The period lasted eight months from 3rd of September 1939. It was used by the Allied countries to fully mobilise their forces for an attack on Germany since they had not initially been prepared.


This was a period during world war two when no major military operations were undertaken on the western front although war had been declared on Germany by France and Britain. The period lasted eight months from 3rd of September 1939. It was used by the Allied countries to fully mobilise their forces for an attack on Germany since they had not initially been prepared. Hitler on his part did not want to be involved in Page 14 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke war in the west since his armies had not fully recovered from the consequents in the east. During this period, two unsuccessful attempts were made to bring peace; a On 6th October 1939, Hitler and Stalin of Russia made an attempt to convince the Allies to accept the Nazi Occupation of Poland and make peace. B On 7th October, King Leopold of Belgium and Queen Wilhelmina of Netherlands appealed to the Axis powers and the Western Allies to make peace. War in Western Europe. On 9th April 1940, Hitler launched a sea-borne invasion against Norway after attacking Denmark via land. They were assisted by a Norwegian Nazi sympathiser Vidkund Quisling. The prime minister of Norway and his Ministers fled to London and Hitler established a puppet government in the country. The defeat of British and French forces in Norway sparked off a parliamentary revolution in Britain forcing the PM Neville Chamberlain to resign to be replaced by Sir Winston Churchill. Germany extended their attack on Luxembourg, Netherlands and Belgium. The Allies were unable to contain the German advance and even retreated to the French port of Dunkirk, marking a major defeat of the allies in Europe. On 14th June 1940, the Germans captured Paris forcing the new Prime Minister Paul Reynaud to sue for peace with Hitler on 22nd June 1940. Under the peace agreement, The Germans took over Alsace -Lorraine, Northern France and the Atlantic coastline. The French government fled to Vichy, southern France. Why the French were defeated so quickly. A The French forces were not psychologically prepared for the war and thus were found divided. B The French forces were not as well organized as the Germans thus exposing various military weaknesses. For example, the Germans were supported by combat planes which the French did not use. C Poor communication between the army and the airforce.


B The French forces were not as well organized as the Germans thus exposing various military weaknesses. For example, the Germans were supported by combat planes which the French did not use. C Poor communication between the army and the airforce. The French generals failed to coordinate the war properly to the extend of ignoring the fact that the Airforce could have been used to drive German Bombers off. Having succeeded in their Paris onslaught, the Germans attacked Britain in July 1940. However, Winston Churchill, the British Premier, had mobilized forces to resist this attack successfully he even obtained reinforcement from USA. The battle of Britain determined the future of World War II. It forced Hitler to delay his attacks. War in North Africa. WWII in Africa was marked by the Italian successful attack on French and British Somaliland. Under Marshal Graziani, the Italian forces advanced to Egypt though unsuccessful. In June1942, German forces moved to North Africa to reinforce the Italians. However, British forces led by General Bernard Montgomery moved quickly and captured Malta which would have been used as a base for attack by the Germans. Page 15 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke General Montgomery attacked the Germans at El Alamein in Egypt, forcing them to move to west. On 8th November 1942, British and American forces invaded Morocco and Algeria. Although the Germans continued fighting in Tunisia, by May 1943, their Army under General Rommel had surrendered. War in the Balkans. In August 1940, Hitler Attacked and captured Romania and Bulgaria. In April 1941, Yugoslavia and Greece were taken. Crete was taken in May 1941. On 22nd June 1941, Hitler attacked USSR forcing the Russian troops to retreat. However, he failed to capture Moscow before the onset of winter. In June 1942, the Germans resumed their offensive. They were finally defeated at the battle of Stalingrad on 31st January 1943 by the Russian Red Army led by Marshal Zhukov. The Germans lost 300,000 men while 100,000 survivors surrendered. By May 1944, the Russians had pushed the Germans from their territory and were approaching Germany itself. Why the Germans were defeated during the Russian Invasion. A The Germany army was fighting in several fronts at the same time as compared to the allies. This lack of concentration in one area allowed the other Russian army to defeat them.


Why the Germans were defeated during the Russian Invasion. A The Germany army was fighting in several fronts at the same time as compared to the allies. This lack of concentration in one area allowed the other Russian army to defeat them. B The soviet forces employed the scorched earth policy which left very little for the German forces. C The Germans ill-treated the soviet people and exploited their economic resources causing resentment and unity to fight with determination. D Weak leadership by the German military leaders contributed to their defeat. USA entry into World War I. The Japanese attack on the American great Naval Base at Pearl Harbour on the Hawaiian island is the one incident that dragged USA into WWII. On 8th December 1941, the USA, Britain and the Netherlands declared war on Japan. The Germans and Italians also declared war on the USA. Russia kept off the war in Asia having signed a treaty with Japan. Japan resisted fiercely. Her airforce sank two British battleships on 10th December 1941.She captured Hong Kong, Malaya in Malaysia and took over the great naval base at Singapore. She also occupied Burma, Dutch East Indies, the Philippines and parts of the western pacific islands. The Japanese forces were repulsed while on their way to Port Moresby, New Guinea in may 1942. In 1942, Britain used her bases in India to attack Japan. Japan attacked India in 1944, but the strong and large allied forces defeated the Japanese at the battle of Kohima. The defeat of Germany. After 1942, the tide of success began to turn against Hitler. German forces were defeated by the allies in North Africa and France. By March 1945, the Allies had crossed the Rhine, pushed the Germans out of France in June 1944. The Germans were meanwhile facing the Russian attack from the East. Page 16 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Hitler accepted defeated and handed over power to one of the Military Generals to retreat to an underground Bunker in Berlin. On 29th April 1945, Hitler married his long term Mistress Eva Braun. On the following day, he committed suicide by shooting himself while Eva Braun took Poison. On 7th May 1945, the Germans surrendered unconditionally Why the Germans were defeated. A Germany had acquired far too many territories and she was unable to effectively control them.


On the following day, he committed suicide by shooting himself while Eva Braun took Poison. On 7th May 1945, the Germans surrendered unconditionally Why the Germans were defeated. A Germany had acquired far too many territories and she was unable to effectively control them. B The USSR recovered from her losses and began to rearm in a bid to fight against Germany. C The USA entry into the war in 1941 on the side of the allies contributed to the eventual defeat of the Germans. D Germany s Axis powers were only four, fighting against more than 27 allies. Even among the Germany collaborators, Italy surrendered while Bulgaria and Romania also were a burden to the Germans. The defeat of Japan. After Germany surrender, Japan continued with fierce fighting sometimes employing the services of suicide bombers known as Kamikaze. The allies were able to liberate the territories captured by Japan After the defeat at Okinawa, Japan was certain of defeat, but her PM , Admiral Suzuki Kantaro, did not believe in unconditional defeat. On 6th August 1945, a bomber Aeroplane, Enola Gay, commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets, flew over Hiroshima dropping a 4535.15kg atomic bomb. About 78,000 people died. On 8th August 1945, Russia attacked Japan. On 9th August 1945, an even larger Bomb was dropped on Nagasaki killing more than 40,000 people. Japan surrendered unconditionally on 15th August 1945 bringing WWII to an end. Factors that enabled the allied powers to win the Second World War. A Allies had more wealth in terms of food, raw materials and equipments. B Allies controlled the North Sea, which ensured safe transportation of troops and equipment. They were also able to block the central powers in the sea. C Entry of USA in the war led to defeat of Germany. America had strong American air force and war resources, d Germany s inability to control her expansive territories and some turned against her and in favour of the allied powers. E The unity, morale and determination of the allied leaders and fighters. F Popular sentiment was for allied victory and Hitler s defeat. G Hitler's over-confidence and craziness did not allow him to comprehend the enormity of opposition up against him and the axis forces. H External support especially from the colonial people in Africa, Asia and elsewhere. I Axis powers dropped out of war one by one.


G Hitler's over-confidence and craziness did not allow him to comprehend the enormity of opposition up against him and the axis forces. H External support especially from the colonial people in Africa, Asia and elsewhere. I Axis powers dropped out of war one by one. J Allies had better industries and financial resources superior economy, war tactics and superior diplomacy by all the allied powers. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke k The axis powers made serious tactical mistakes e.g. Hitler failed to prepare for a winter campaign in Russia and was obsessed with the idea that Germans must not retreat. L When the USSR recovered from her losses, she rearmed her self and attacked Germany. Social results of Second World War a Depopulation and great suffering as Millions of people perished either in war or due to famine and diseases. B People suffered psychologically and emotionally from the loss of loved ones and torture of the war. C The end of the war witnessed change in the status of women. Women started doing work, which was initially monopolized by men. E.g. military and management. D There was permanent ill health and shortening of life for millions of peoples because of years of under- nourishment or captivity. E There was massive Destruction of property such as homes, houses, buildings, roads and bridges. F A large number of people were displaced as people moved to look for peaceful areas and this led to great suffering. The new refugees included the Jews, Slavs and the poles. G The war fomented bitter feelings and mistrust among the countries that fought h The war helped to shade off the myth popularized by Europeans that they were a superior race to Africans as European causalities in the war proved that they were mortals Identify the political effects of the World War II. A Defeat of axis powers led to government changes in Germany, Italy and Japan. B The division of Europe into two opposing blocks led to the cold war, which was followed by an arms race between USA and USSR. C Germany was divided into two. The communist East and the capitalist West. The city of Berlin was also divided between the east and the west. D Germany and Italy were weakened especially with the loss of their colonies. E U.S.A U.S.S.R emerged as superpowers.


The city of Berlin was also divided between the east and the west. D Germany and Italy were weakened especially with the loss of their colonies. E U.S.A U.S.S.R emerged as superpowers. The pre-war balance of power was destroyed and the power vacuum was filled by two new superpowers, the USA and USSR f A weakness of the League of Nations to prevent the outbreak of war was demonstrated. This Led to UNO formation. G There was rise of nationalism in Asia and Africa. It led to Africans struggle for independence because they were confident knowing that Europeans were no superior to them. Nationalists among the Asians leading to attainment of independence in Pakistan and India in 1947, in Burma Myanmar in 1948, and in Ceylon Sri Lanka. In 1949. H The Japanese destroyed the myth of European military superiority due to the defeat of British and American forces in the Far East. Page 18 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke i New states were created. In 1948, the state of Israel was established in the Middle East, to settle the Jews who were displaced during the war. Economic effects of World War 2. A Agriculture and industries were disrupted due to lack of equipment, raw materials and human resources. B External trade almost came to a standstill because of fear and insecurity. C It led to increased dependency on colonies by European powers. There was need of raw materials to reconstruct the destroyed industries. D Some Industries were established in the colonies to manufacture goods because of the difficulties faced in running them during the war. E It led to the rise of European economic cooperation. The post war economic destructions led to the need for cooperation. This paved way for formation of the European Economic Community in 1957. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS International Relations refers to the cooperation or interaction between individuals or groups of nations of the world Benefits of international relations. A Enhance peace and security in the world the diplomatic policies of nations call for peaceful settlement of disputes, thus reducing war incidences. B Promote understanding and unity. This done through Encouraging cultural exchange between nations. C Help in getting collectives solutions to world problems. Problems of global concern like desertification, global warming, armament and environmental pollution, are dealt with collectively. D Promote economic growth through trade.


C Help in getting collectives solutions to world problems. Problems of global concern like desertification, global warming, armament and environmental pollution, are dealt with collectively. D Promote economic growth through trade. Due to good relations , there is expanded international trade which enables countries to acquire goods they don t produce e Developing countries get financial assistance. Developed nations have continued to provide financial and technical assistance to developing nations Ways in which nations relate internationally. A Economic relations. This is through trade and commercial activities among nations. For example, developed nations giving loans and grants to developing nations. B Diplomatic relations. This is a peaceful means of relationship between nations in which there is exchange of Ambassadors or High Commissioners. C Political relations. This involves cooperation between countries with similar political systems or ideologies. E.g. USA and Western Europe, in 1964, Tanganyika united with the island of Zanzibar to form the United Republic of Tanzania. D Socio-cultural relations. This takes place in form of exchange and competition between dance troops, musicians, acrobats, sports teams, theatre groups etc, e.g. participation in Commonwealth Games. International Organizations There are two types of international organizations; Page 19 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 1. International Governmental Organizations IGOs for example UN, Commonwealth, NAM and African Union. Formed by two or more sovereign states . 2. International Non-Governmental Organizations NGOs created by individuals or private organizations. E.g. International Red cross, Amnesty International and Transparency International. Role played by International Governmental Organizations. A The provide member states with a forum to consult and tackle problems of concern. B They act as regulators in their fields to ensure the welfare of Humankind e.g World Health Organization WHO regulates health sector through immunization, vaccination and other prevention campaigns. C They enhance peace and security through peace-keeping missions and response to disasters. D They contribute to charity and facilitate equitable distribution of resources in the world. For example, the International Monetary Fund IMF and World Bank advance loans to developing nations. THE UNITED NATIONS. The UN was founded after world war Two as an organization of independent states with the following objectives; a To promote and maintain international peace and security and prevent the occurrence of another world war. B To foster friendly relations among nations of the world.


THE UNITED NATIONS. The UN was founded after world war Two as an organization of independent states with the following objectives; a To promote and maintain international peace and security and prevent the occurrence of another world war. B To foster friendly relations among nations of the world. C To promote respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms. D To promote social progress and better living standards of the people. E To protect the interests of minority groups such as women and children. F To promote economic growth among member states who are working towards reconstructing the world economy that was destroyed by the World War 2. G To replace the league of nations which had collapsed before the outbreak of world war 2 Formation of the United Nations. The signing of the Allied declaration in London on 12th June 1941 marked the first step in the formation of the UN. On 14th August 1941, Franklin Delano Roosevelt of USA and Winston Churchill of Britain, meeting in USA, proposed a set of principles for international collaboration in maintaining peace and security. This was the Atlantic Charter. The charter pledged respect for human Freedom, Allowed all nations the freedom to choose the form of government they preferred and provided that no territory should change hands after war without consent of its people. On 1st January 1942, representatives of Allied nations meeting in Washington signed the Declaration by United Nations and proclaimed support for the Atlantic Charter. This marked the first official use of the term United Nations as suggested by President Roosevelt in reference to the 26 nations. Page 20 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke The first Blueprint of the UN was prepared at a conference held at Dumbarton Oaks Estate, Washington from 21st September to 7th October 1944. Representatives of USSR, USA, UK and China agreed on the aims, structure and functions of a world organization. On 11th February 1945, the Yalta Conference held by US president Roosevelt, UK PM Churchill and Russian PM Stalin declared the resolve to establish an international organization to maintain peace and security. On 25th April 1945, the United Nations Conference on International Organization began in San Francisco, USA attended by delegates from 50 nations. It drew a 111-Article Charter which was adopted on 25th June 1945.


On 11th February 1945, the Yalta Conference held by US president Roosevelt, UK PM Churchill and Russian PM Stalin declared the resolve to establish an international organization to maintain peace and security. On 25th April 1945, the United Nations Conference on International Organization began in San Francisco, USA attended by delegates from 50 nations. It drew a 111-Article Charter which was adopted on 25th June 1945. The UN began its official functions on 24th October 1945 after ratification of the charter by USSR, USA, Britain, China and France. Organization of the UNO. Membership to the UN is open to all peace-loving nations that accept the obligations of the charter. By 1945, only 51 states had signed the charter. Kenya Joined on 16th December 1963By April 2003 membership had grown to 191 states. To achieve its aims, the UN spelt out in its charter the following principles; a It is based on the sovereign equality of all its members. B All member states must fulfil, in good faith, their charter obligations. C All member states must settle international disputes by peaceful means and without endangering peace, security and justice. D They must refrain, in their international relations, from the threat or use of force against others. E They must give the United Nations every assistance to any action it takes in accordance with the charte r, and shall not assist states against which the United Nations is taking preventive or enforcement action. F The United Nations must ensure that states which are not members act in accordance with these principles insofar as necessary for maintenance of international peace and security. The UNO structure comprises six principal organs as follows; THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY This is the main deliberative organ of the UNO, but which cannot enforce action on members. It comprises all member states. Functions of the UN General Assembly. MAKE REFERENCE TO EVOLVING WORLD PAGE 44 To help in its operation, the general assembly has the following committees; The political and security committee, the special political committee, the economic and financial committee, the committee on social ,humanitarian and cultural issues, the trusteeship committee , the administration budget committee and the legal affairs committee. THE SECURITY COUNCIL It has 15 members from 15 countries. Ten of these are non-permanent. It also has five permanent members namely china, France, USA, Russia and UK.


THE SECURITY COUNCIL It has 15 members from 15 countries. Ten of these are non-permanent. It also has five permanent members namely china, France, USA, Russia and UK. Its main function is to maintain world peace and security. Page 21 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL Its membership is 54. 18 are elected each year for a term of three years. Its function is to coordinate the economic and social work of UN and its specialized agencies. E.g. in trade, status of women. Population, science and technology. TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL. It inherited the work of the Mandates Commission of the former League of Nations. It had responsibility over the territories under colonial rule-. -. To promote social, economic, political and educational advancement of the inhabitants of the trust territories. Consists of five permanent members and six additional ones appointed by the General Assembly. THE SECRETARIAT. The head of the secretariat is the secretary general. It has its headquarters in New York. Its staff members come from 139 countries. Its work covers all areas outlined in the UN Charter. THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE. It has its headquarters at Hague. It is the principal judicial body of the UN. It gives advisory opinions on legal questions. It has 15 judges. SPECIALIZED AGENCIES. These are separate specialized agencies which are autonomous organizations related to the UN by special agreements. REF TO PAGE 49 OF EVOLVING WORLD Past Secretary Generals of the United Nations Organization since its inception. A Trygve lie of Norway 1946-1953 . B Dag Hammarskj ld of Sweden 1953-1961 c U Thant of Burma 1961-1971 d Kurt Waldheim of Austria 1972-1982 e Javier Perez de Cueller of Peru 1982-1991 f Boutros Ghali Boutros. Of Egypt 1992-1996 g Kofi Annan of Ghana 1997-2000 h Ban Ki Moon. 2000 up to present Achievements of the United Nations Organization. A The organization has succeeded in keeping peace amid the threats of nuclear war and seemingly endless regional conflicts in the world. UNO has developed more than 35 peacekeeping missions and observer nations.


Of Egypt 1992-1996 g Kofi Annan of Ghana 1997-2000 h Ban Ki Moon. 2000 up to present Achievements of the United Nations Organization. A The organization has succeeded in keeping peace amid the threats of nuclear war and seemingly endless regional conflicts in the world. UNO has developed more than 35 peacekeeping missions and observer nations. B The UN specialized agencies are engaged in a vast array of social work, affecting positively, every aspect of people s lives around the world. E.g., child survival and development, environmental protection, medical research, agricultural development, education etc. C The organization has helped in promoting democracy around the world. It has enabled people in more than 45 countries to participate in free and fair elections, e.g. in Namibia, Cambodia, El Salvador, Eritrea, Mozambique, South Africa etc. D The UNO has promoted development of skills and potentials vital for all aspects of development. The UNDP, in close co-operation with over 170 member states and Page 22 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke the UN agencies designs and implements projects for agriculture, industry, education and environment. E It has helped in promotion of Human Rights. Since the adoption of the universal declaration of human rights in 1948, the UN has helped to enact more than 80 agreements on political, civil, economic, social and cultural rights. F It has played a vital role in environmental protection. The Earth Summit , the UN Conference On Environment and Development held in Rio De Janeiro in 1992, resulted in treaties on biodiversity and climate change g Promoting self-determination and independence. The organization has brought about independence of 80 countries that are now among its member states. H Providing humanitarian aid to victims of conflicts. More than 30 million refugees fleeing war, famine or persecution have received aid from the UN high commission for refugees since 1951. Problems facing the United Nations Organization in its operation. A National sovereignty. Many countries disregard the UNO resolutions in favour of their sovereignty. B It is unable to stop aggressions and conflicts between individual countries when super powers are involved. C Lacks sufficient funds to carry out its work efficiently. E.g it has not always been able to send enough peacekeeping forces due to lack of sufficient funds. D It lacks an effective machinery to affect its decisions.


C Lacks sufficient funds to carry out its work efficiently. E.g it has not always been able to send enough peacekeeping forces due to lack of sufficient funds. D It lacks an effective machinery to affect its decisions. It also lacks a standing army to implement and effect its resolutions. E The permanent members with veto powers often adopt policies that promote their own national interests at the expense of the collective interests of most countries in the world. F Loyalty to other organizations. UNO members are also members of other organizations; the interests of these organizations are not in accord with those of the UNO. G Ideological disputes among member states have hampered the work of UNO in promoting world peace. This was manifested in the cold war period. H The arms race. The UNO has found it difficult to achieve world peace because of the arms race in different parts of the world. The arms race generates and sustains conflict rather than peace. I Differences in economic development levels of member states militate against co- operation. J The increased occurrence of natural disasters such as famine, floods and epidemics has created an unexpected demand for economic resources. This automatically the UN s resources. THE COMMONWEALTH. Origin and structure of Commonwealth of Nations. It is a voluntary association of 54 sovereign countries around the world, which were initially part of the British Empire. The commonwealth origin is the British Empire Page 23 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke comprising the British protectorates, colonies and dominions, which included Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Newfoundland, Irish Free State and South Africa. The idea to launch the association is traced back to 1839, with the publication of the Durham report. The modern commonwealth began in 1947 with the end of the British rule in India. In 1949, India and Pakistan joined the commonwealth. The commonwealth secretariat is based in London. It deals with day to day running of the organization and organizes meetings. The head of the commonwealth is the Queen King of England. The Commonwealth has the Heads of State Summit which meets for a week every two years to discuss political and economic issues. There are also the Ministerial meetings once after every three years to deal with different issues. The commonwealth has specialized agencies dealing with various areas of concern. Membership to commonwealth. It comprised 54 developed and developing nations. The members are categorized as follows; 1.


Membership to commonwealth. It comprised 54 developed and developing nations. The members are categorized as follows; 1. Britain and her Dominions of Canada, Australia and New Zealand. 2. African Nations. 3. Asian nations. 4. Islands from the Caribbean, Pacific and Mediterranean. Characteristics of commonwealth states. A Members of the commonwealth use English as a common language. B Members maintain cultural ties. For instance, they participate in the commonwealth games every four years. C Members co-operate in the field of education. D Members recognize the queen of England as the head of commonwealth. E Members have a common military tradition based on the British military system. They also promote military exchange programmes. F Members share common democratic institutions from Britain such as parliamentary system of government. G Members have adopted constitutions that are almost similar. Objectives that led to the formation of the commonwealth nations. A To promote world peace and international understanding. Members are expected to abide by the UN Peace programmes. B To promote development of poor member states. C To intensify co-operation between member states, in matters of education, sport and economic development. D To ensure personal liberty and equality of rights to all citizens regardless of race, colour, creed or political beliefs. E To oppose all forms of colonial dominion by being committed to the principles of human dignity and equality, self-determination and non-racism. F To promote the exchange of knowledge, professionalism and cultural, economic, legal and political issues. Page 24 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke g T fights poverty, ignorance and disease to remove wealth disparities and raise the living standards, and achieve a more equitable international society. H To enhance free international trade by removing trade barriers, bur tat the same time, giving due consideration to the special requirements of the developing countries. Organization of the Commonwealth. The structure of the commonwealth comprises of three organs; 1. The Head of state Summit. It meets once in every two years for a week for extensive decisions and consultations. Decisions are reached by consensus. 2. Ministerial Meetings. The commonwealth ministers of Finance, Foreign Affairs and defence hold regular meetings once every year. Ministers of Health, Education and Law hold meetings once every three years 3. The Commonwealth Secretariat: headed by the secretary general and with a staff of 350 drawn from member countries.


The commonwealth ministers of Finance, Foreign Affairs and defence hold regular meetings once every year. Ministers of Health, Education and Law hold meetings once every three years 3. The Commonwealth Secretariat: headed by the secretary general and with a staff of 350 drawn from member countries. It co-ordinates co-operation among members. The first secretary General was Arnold Smith of Canada. In 1990, Chief Emeka Anyaoku of Nigeria became the first African Secretary General. 4. Specialized Agencies. A The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-Operation; supplies funds, finance, experts and advisers for projects carried out in member states. B The Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau; it provides co-operation in the field of agriculture. C The Commonwealth Parliamentary Association; helps to improve relations between parliamentarians of member states. D The Commonwealth Regional Health Secretariat for East, Central and Southern Africa; promotes co-operation in health. Benefits of membership to Commonwealth. A Member states have received technical expertise through the provision of experts and advisers in various fields e.g. agriculture. B The developing member states of the organization have acquired skilled manpower through the provision of scholarship and setting up of training programmes by nations like Britain and Canada. C Member states have been able to interact with one another through activities such as the commonwealth games and cultural exchange programmes. D Member states have conducted trade among themselves with relative ease and this has helped them to develop their economies. E The organization has promoted friendship and understanding among member states through conferences such as The Heads of Government meetings. F It has enhanced democratization process in developing member states of the organization Functions of commonwealth REF to evolving world page 60 Problems facing Commonwealth of Nations. Page 25 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke a Differences in economic development levels of member states militate against co- operation. Members coming from developing world have very different outlook from those coming from the developed world. B Ideological disputes among member states have hampered the operations of the Commonwealth of Nations. C Lacks sufficient funds to carry out its work efficiently. Poor members normally owe many debts to their foreign masters and would therefore toe to their demands. D The problem of sovereignty. Many countries disregard the commonwealth resolutions in favour of their sovereignty. E It lacks an effective machinery to affect its decisions. It also lacks a standing army to implement and effect its resolutions. F Loyalty to other organizations.


E It lacks an effective machinery to affect its decisions. It also lacks a standing army to implement and effect its resolutions. F Loyalty to other organizations. Commonwealth members are also members of other organizations; the interests of these organizations are not in accord with those of the commonwealth g The colonial legacy. Many problems arising from past colonial policies have rocked the organization. E.g. the land issue in Zimbabwe. H The influence of other organizations like NATO who weaken the commonwealth by wooing members to their regions. I Race and colour problem. The conflict between white and black people or other color has become another setback. J Dominance by the big powers. This has caused dismay to the organization. Serious inner tension still undermines the commonwealth activities. THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT NAM STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION NAM was an organization that did not have formal structures like UNO and Commonwealth. It did not have a secretariat or a constitution. The movement had a unique administrative style as follows. Coordination The administration is non-hierarchical, rotational and inclusive, providing all member states, regardless of size and importance with an opportunity to participate in global decision making and world politics. The country that hosts the summit holds office until the next summit. Non-aligned countries place the onus of an administrative structure on the country assuming the chair. The country is required to create or designate an entire section of the ministry of foreign affairs to deal specifically with the Non-Aligned Movement. The chair s ambassador in the United Nations essentially functions as the minister of Non-Aligned Affairs . NAM has also created contact groups, task forces and committees to facilitate the chair s responsibility as follows; The Coordinating Bureau. This is the focal point for coordination. It reviews and facilitates the harmonization of the NAM working groups, contact groups, task forces and committees. Page 26 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Working Groups, Contact Groups, Task Forces and Committees. They include NAM High-level working group for the restructuring of the United Nations, NAM working group on Human Rights, Disarmament, Committee on Palestine, Contact Groups on Cyprus, and Task Force on Somalia etc. These groupings meet often. Non-Aligned security Caucus. The countries that make up the NAM council caucus are expected to constantly strive to adopt unified positions so that the decisions and positions of NAM are reflected in the Security Council decisions without prejudice to their sovereignty.


These groupings meet often. Non-Aligned security Caucus. The countries that make up the NAM council caucus are expected to constantly strive to adopt unified positions so that the decisions and positions of NAM are reflected in the Security Council decisions without prejudice to their sovereignty. Joint coordinating committee This is a coordinating committee established in 1994 and sitting in New York, whose main mandate is to promote cooperation and coordination between the NAM and the Group of 77 in promoting the interests of developing countries in international fora. Coordination of non-aligned countries in the UN centres. This is aimed at facilitating coordination and cooperation with the coordinating bureau and enhances the role of NAM in the international Fora. The Troika. The concept of Troika emerged on 6th April 1997 in New Delhi, India, during the meeting of foreign ministers of NAM representing past, present and future chairs. The concept simply implies a meeting of past, present and future chairs who began to meet in September 1997 as a discussion forum. Panel of economists This is an ad hoc panel of economists formed from Non-Aligned countries to assess the current international economic situation from the perspective of developing countries and to identify and analyze their major issues of concern. Documentation. This is the responsibility of the host country but after wide consultation. The host country must circulate the First Draft not later than one month before the meeting. Decision making. The movement makes all its decisions by consensus. This concept presupposes understanding of and respect for different points of view, including disagreement and mutual accommodation. This promotes solidarity and unity of the movement. NAM Meetings They include the following a Conference of Heads of State and Government. This is NAM s highest decision- making authority and meets once every three years. It has two committees, one on political issues and another on economic and social issues. The summit is held atleast one month before the regular session of the UN General Assembly. During the summit, there is a formal ceremony for handing over the chair. B Ministerial conference. Its task is to review developments and implement decisions of the preceding summit and also discuss matters of urgency. The conference meets 18 months after the summit. C Ministerial meeting in New York during a session of the UN General Assembly. This is a meeting of foreign ministers annually in New York at the beginning of the regular Page 27 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke session of the UN Assembly.


The conference meets 18 months after the summit. C Ministerial meeting in New York during a session of the UN General Assembly. This is a meeting of foreign ministers annually in New York at the beginning of the regular Page 27 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke session of the UN Assembly. The purpose of the meeting is to deliberate on the items of the Agenda of the General Assembly that are of major importance to the movement. D Ministerial Meeting of the Coordinating Bureau. The main task is to prepare for the summits, and where necessary, to consider issues of major importance to the movement. E Meeting of the Ministerial Committee on Methodology. The attendance is by all NAM members and its meetings are held by the decision of the summit or the ministerial conference. The meetings are chaired by the chair of NAM. F Meeting of the standing ministerial committee on economic cooperation. These meetings are meant to strengthen south-south cooperation, reactivate the dialogue between the developing and developed countries and enhance the role of the UN General Assembly, in international cooperation for development. The meetings are held frequently upon recommendation of the coordinating Bureau. G Ministerial Meetings in various fields of international cooperation. They discuss issues like agriculture, information and external debt. H Extraordinary Meetings of the Coordinating Bureau. They address exceptional cases that call for urgent consideration. I Meetings of the Working Groups, Task Forces, Contact Groups and Committees. The meetings are held as often as necessary. The growth of NAM. After the Bandung Conference of 1955 which established the movement, NAM has attracted many developing counties. . A number of conferences have been held since then; a The first summit, Belgrade, 1961. The attendance was by 25 non-aligned countries who met at a time when world peace was threatened seriously by the looming nuclear war. The meeting s objective was to prevent the outbreak of a nuclear war in the world. B The second summit, Cairo, 1964. The summit of October 1964 was attended by 47 Nations and 10 observers. There were 28 representatives from Africa. The conference mainly focused on problems facing NAM countries due to colonial inheritance, policies of former colonial powers and the rivalry between the great powers.. c The third summit, Lusaka, 1970.


There were 28 representatives from Africa. The conference mainly focused on problems facing NAM countries due to colonial inheritance, policies of former colonial powers and the rivalry between the great powers.. c The third summit, Lusaka, 1970. The attendance was by 53 members the meeting resolved that time was ripe for declaration on peace, independence, cooperation and democratization. The members were out to fight colonialism and racism. The main resolution was the members determination to achieve economic emancipation. D The Fourth Summit, Algiers, 1973. It was attended by 75 members, eight observers, three guest nations and 15 liberation movements. The meeting was an attempt to transform the existing system of economic and financial relations in a manner that would liberate developing countries from a subordinate role into an equal position Page 28 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke with industrialized countries. The members developed an action programme in the interest of economic cooperation. E The fifth Summit, Colombo, 1976. It was attended by 86 members, who focused on the liberation of Zimbabwe and Namibia, the abolition of apartheid in South Africa as a way of promoting world peace. F The sixth Summit, Havana, 1979. The conference was attended by 93 members, 12 observers, 8 guest nations and seven new members. The meeting declared that imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, apartheid, racism, foreign aggression, expansion, occupation, domination, interference or hegemony, Great power bloc, Subjugation, dependency and pressures in international relations as enemies of non- alignment. The chairman of the summit was Fidel Castro who put forth his ideas that the socialist bloc is a natural ally of the movement. G The seventh summit, New Delhi, 1983. It was attended by 96 members, 16 observers and 20 guest nations. The summit took place at a time when there was intense confrontation as the great powers continued to amass nuclear weapons. . Indra Gandhi appeared to be the moderate leader to host the conference and soften the impact of Cuban radicalism. The conference discussed peace, nuclear disarmament, development strategies for north-south Dialogue on a new world economic order, and the south-south cooperation for collective self-reliance. H The eighth summit, Harare, 1986. It marked NAM s silver Jubilee.


The conference discussed peace, nuclear disarmament, development strategies for north-south Dialogue on a new world economic order, and the south-south cooperation for collective self-reliance. H The eighth summit, Harare, 1986. It marked NAM s silver Jubilee. The main concern was Namibia s independence and apartheid in south Africa.. NAM emphasized its sanctions against the Pretoria South Africa regime. It drew an action plan to deal with the threat posed by South Africa. The summit came up with a special solidarity fund to help the frontline states. I The Ninth summit, Belgrade, 1989. J The tenth Summit, Jakarta, 1992. K The eleventh Summit, Cartagena de Indias, 1995. L The twelfth Summit, Durban 1998. M The thirteenth Summit, Kuala Lumpar, 2003. Performance of the Non-Aligned Movement. Though critics have questioned the relevance of NAM after dismantling apartheid and achieving independence, and after end of cold war, there still exist situations that require NAM s participation. Reasons why NAM is still relevant. A NAM is the only forum that can articulate the voice of justice and sanity in the world in view of the unending Arms Race. B NAM is the only forum through which the demand for a less unjust world economic order can be raised given the kind of hold the developed nations still have on developing nations. C NAM remains the third world s shield against the pressures of the superpower elephants that can easily trample on the grass of the lesser animals even after end of cold war. Page 29 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke d NAM can still play a role in addressing emerging world issues such as terrorism, environmental degradation, HIV AIDS and racism. Achievements of NAM. A It has helped speed up the attainment of freedom in states that were under colonial bondage. B NAM has assisted its members in safeguarding their national security and territorial integrity. C Nan-aligned nations also worked to eliminate conflict between the superpowers. This helped in the promotion of peace and security for the non-aligned world. India for example played a role in solving the Korean War, the Suez crisis and Indo- Chinese conflict.


C Nan-aligned nations also worked to eliminate conflict between the superpowers. This helped in the promotion of peace and security for the non-aligned world. India for example played a role in solving the Korean War, the Suez crisis and Indo- Chinese conflict. D NAM created a conducive environment for peace, justice, equality and international cooperation by contributing to the relaxation of international tension by keeping clear of the two military blocs, USA and USSR. E The movement has strengthened African and Asian Countries diplomatically at a time when they lacked necessary physical strength. They were able to exert their voting power as Afro-Asian bloc to influence world affairs. F NAM provided an international forum where members voices could be heard. It was able to work to dismantle apartheid by its two-third world community membership despite the Reagan administration s opposition to sanctions against South Africa. G The movement has given members freedom to put their national interests before those of the great power blocs. H The NAM through the Cairo and Colombo Summits termed as World Disarmament conferences, played a key role in the disarmament process. The 1967 Treaty of Tlatelolco, signed by 22 states, set up a weapon Free Zone in Latin America. I The Non-aligned states have helped in international crisis management since they are not committed to any course of military action. For example during the 1961 Berlin crisis, Nehru of India and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana went to Moscow for a peace mission, while Achmad Sukarno of Indonesia and Modibo Keita of Mali went to Washington DC to try and create a conducive atmosphere for managing the crisis. J NAM has worked towards creation of new international economic order. Members of the movement are able to trade with both the great power blocs. Membership to the Group of 77 in the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNCTAD is drawn from the non-aligned nations. The non-aligned nations were open to aid from both blocs and also ready to expand their trade with both sides of the ideological divide. K The Solidarity fund established during the Harare Summit of 1986 cushioned the frontline states against the economic sanctions imposed on apartheid South Africa. L NAM has worked to create the new scientific and technological order. The members have demanded a new scientific and technological order by favouring access to the most advanced technology and scientific research available as a means of bridging the technological gap between the developed countries and developing ones.


K The Solidarity fund established during the Harare Summit of 1986 cushioned the frontline states against the economic sanctions imposed on apartheid South Africa. L NAM has worked to create the new scientific and technological order. The members have demanded a new scientific and technological order by favouring access to the most advanced technology and scientific research available as a means of bridging the technological gap between the developed countries and developing ones. Factors which have undermined the activities of the Non-Aligned Movement. Page 30 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke a Political instability is frequently experienced by some member states. For example, civil wars and military coups in DRC, the Sudan, Rwanda, Burundi, interstate wars like in the case of Iran and Irag. This has undermined their contribution to the movement. B Economic ties between the third world countries and their colonial masters had made it difficult for the member states to pursue an independent line. C Border disputes between neighboring member countries has weakened the course of the movement. E.g. between morocco and Algeria, North Korea and South Korea, Vietnam and Cambodia, Ethiopia and Somalia, Uganda and Tanzania etc. D Economic backwardness of some of the member states has made it difficult for them to meet their obligation in the movement as national needs come first in view of the meager resources of some of the nations. E Ideological differences between member states have undermined their co- operation. Its large size of 116 members by 2004 has frustrated its ideological coherence and organizational solidarity. Whereas some countries are inclined towards the west, others are inclined to the east. F Membership to other organizations like AU, commonwealth and the French community, has made it difficult for some states to participate actively in the affairs of the movement. G Breakup of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War has destabilized the movement. As power bloc rivalry subsided, NAM appeared to become irrelevant. H Conflicting national interests. Individual national interests have failed to agree with the objectives of the movement. I Personality differences between leaders of member states have undermined the movement. For example, several leaders rejected the radical views of Fidel Catron of Cuba. J Differences unrelated to the principles of NAM have developed among members. For example at the Colombo Summit of 1978, several Arab states were keen to see Egypt expelled from the movement on grounds that she had signed a separate peace treaty with Israel.


For example, several leaders rejected the radical views of Fidel Catron of Cuba. J Differences unrelated to the principles of NAM have developed among members. For example at the Colombo Summit of 1978, several Arab states were keen to see Egypt expelled from the movement on grounds that she had signed a separate peace treaty with Israel. This was not an agreement with a superpower and therefore had nothing to do with NAM. K NAM lacks a permanent Army or a permanent institutional framework or machinery that can enable it carry out its activities effectively. For example, it failed to persuade irag and Iran to end the 8 year long war from 1980. THE COLD WAR. The Cold War refers to the strained relations that existed between the western world led principally by the United States and the communist East led by the USSR, after the Second World War. It was so called because it was fought not with weapons, but with words, propaganda, military and financial aid to enemies of the opposing sides. Although there was no actual physical confrontation, Cold War was characterized by a conflict of the most serious and deadly kind. Causes of the Cold War. Page 31 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke a Ideological differences. There was deep-seated fear and mutual suspicion between USA and USSR over the spread of their ideologies-capitalism and communism. E.g The establishment of the Soviet Union through acquisition of satellite states was a measure to contain capitalism. B Disagreement over the issue of disarmament. The use of atomic bomb on Japan by USA towards the end of World War II alarmed USSR. The two sides failed to agree on an arms reduction plan and continued to stockpile atomic bombs. C Economic rivalry. In 1947, the USA President Harry S. Truman introduced the Marshal Plan, a scheme to assist western European countries that had been devastated by war. The USSR in turn formed Council for Mutual Economic Assistance COMECON , an economic cooperative plan for Eastern Europe. This further heightened the hostility between the west and the east. D Formation of military alliances. In April 1949, the USA, western European countries and Canada formed a military alliance through the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty in Washington D.C. NATO . The formation of NATO ended USA s isolationist policy. Russians responded by signing the Warsaw Pact, in May 1955, a military alliance of communist countries. These alliances fostered hostility between countries.


The formation of NATO ended USA s isolationist policy. Russians responded by signing the Warsaw Pact, in May 1955, a military alliance of communist countries. These alliances fostered hostility between countries. E The use of Russian veto powers in the UN. Russia used her veto powers to defeat UN proposals, which she accused of being pro-USA. The struggle by the two powers to dominate the UN increased tension between them. F Disagreement over the future of Germany as a whole. Western allies wanted a strong Germany to assist in the economic prosperity of other nations. Russia was keen on a politically and economically weak Germany to safeguard against another invasion. NB- in 1961, the USSR built the Berlin Wall, thus dividing East Berlin from West Berlin. G USA s military advancement. By 1945, the USA was the only country that possessed atomic weapons. This created fear. COURSE OF THE COLD WAR. The cold war was fought in Europe Asia, Latin America and Africa, The course of the Cold War in Europe The cold war in Europe involved a conflict between the West and the East. The highlights of this conflict included Russia s overwhelming encroachment and dominance of Eastern Europe. Russia used her military might to impose communist governments on many states like Poland and Romania. They also fanned civil wars. E.g the Greek civil war of 1946. There were widespread outbreaks of violence and demands of freedoms in Poland and Romania, based on western ideologies, in politics and economy. In Czechoslovakia, communist Russia orchestrated protests against reforms based on western ideologies, by the Dubcek Government, which was supported by the west. Dubcek was arrested and flown to Moscow. Dr. Husak, a Russian ally was installed. The following are the major developments that characterized cold war in Europe. Page 32 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke a In March 1947, the US president Harry Truman, through The Truman Doctrine declared that the USA would support free people resisting subjugation by armed minorities. In 1947, USA took over Britain s commitment in Greece and turkey to support the anti-communist regimes. B In 1947, the US Secretary of state, George Marshall came up with a proposal which was to become the Marshall Plan. This was a plan through which the US would make a major contribution to the economic recovery of Europe.


In 1947, USA took over Britain s commitment in Greece and turkey to support the anti-communist regimes. B In 1947, the US Secretary of state, George Marshall came up with a proposal which was to become the Marshall Plan. This was a plan through which the US would make a major contribution to the economic recovery of Europe. The plan was rejected by USSR terming it an American interference in the internal affairs of other nations. C Stalin set up the Communist Information Bureau COMINFORM to coordinate the work of communist parties in Europe and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance COMECON to counter the US Marshal Plan. D The NATO and Warsaw Pact. By the treaty of Brussels in March 1948, Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg formed a defensive alliance against any form of aggression It became the North Atlantic Treaty Organization-NATO, in April 1949 when other European Nations joined it. In response to NATO, the Soviet Union signed the Warsaw Pact in Poland on 14th May 1955 with East Germany and six Eastern European countries. The existence of NATO and Warsaw Pact only intensified the hostilities. E The Berlin Blockade. Germany was divided into two zones, East and West. Russia treated East Germany as a satellite state thus curtailing trade between east and west. This move almost led to starvation in the west as East Germany was the main producer. In May 1948, all roads and rail routes into West Berlin were sealed off by Russian troops. For over two years, food, coal medical supplies and other necessities to the 2 million people in West Berlin were airlifted since there was no land linkage. The blockade ended in may 1949 with diverstating consequences. F Partition of Germany. The west was prepared to give freedom to the Germans as a whole to decide their own fate. Russia was determined to ensure that East Germany remained dominated by communism under Russian control. On 23rd may 1949, the western occupation zone in Germany became the Federal Republic of Germany with Konrad Adenauer as the chancellor in September elections. On 7th October 1949, the soviet zone formed the Germany Democratic Republic. In August 1961, the East Germans built the Berlin Wall, curtailing communication and flow of refugees from the west. The cold war was fought in Asia. In Asia, China was the first front of Cold War.


In August 1961, the East Germans built the Berlin Wall, curtailing communication and flow of refugees from the west. The cold war was fought in Asia. In Asia, China was the first front of Cold War. She embraced communism, following the successful takeover of the country by the forces of Mao Tse-tung in October 1949, assisted by the Russians. The Sino-Soviet Treaty of friendship was signed in 1950. Korea, formerly controlled by Japan, was another front for cold war in Asia. When Japan was defeated in 1945, Korea was occupied from the south by American forces, from the Page 33 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke north by Russians, placing the country under joint control. The occupying powers failed to unite the two Korea sections when she became independent. In 1948, the USA announced the formation of the Independent Democratic Republic of Korea in the South. The Russians formed the Peoples Republic of Korea in the north. On 25th June 1950, North Korea Forces invaded South Korea in an attempt to unite. UN condemned this and An American General, Douglas MacArthur led the UN forced that repulsed the invaders. The cold war spread to Vietnam, with USSR and USA clashing over Vietnam, formerly a colony of France that had been seized by Japan. The two super powers supported different nationalist leaders in the struggle for independence from France. The Russians supported Ho Chi-Minh who led a revolt by the Vietnamese, against the French. USA supported Ngo Dinh Diem. The Vietnam War erupted as a result The Vietnam War was the heaviest cost of containing communism by Americans in a distant country. Americans were humiliatingly defeated in 1975 with a causality of 53,000, despite employing over 400,000 troops. The communist guerillas, the Viet Cong, established a communist government in South Vietnam. The war strengthened American hostility towards Russia There was an armed conflict between the super powers in Afghanistan from 1978. The height of the conflict in Afghanistan was the Boycott of the Moscow Olympic Games in 1980 as a protest against USSR s involvement in Afghanistan. The conflict took the form of a civil war which was only eased in 1989 when the USSR began to withdraw its troops.


The war strengthened American hostility towards Russia There was an armed conflict between the super powers in Afghanistan from 1978. The height of the conflict in Afghanistan was the Boycott of the Moscow Olympic Games in 1980 as a protest against USSR s involvement in Afghanistan. The conflict took the form of a civil war which was only eased in 1989 when the USSR began to withdraw its troops. The cold war in Latin America the Cuban Missile Crisis Cuba became the theatre of cold war when USA unsuccessfully supported the Cuban dictator, General Fulgencio Batista against Fidel Castro who was fighting to end Batista s regime. Fidel Castro overthrew the Batista regime in 1958. The new government immediately gained recognition from many world nations including USA and USSR In 1960, Fidel began a communist nationalization programme of American oil refineries and sugar plantations. This strained relations between him and the US who attempted unsuccessfully to invade Cuba in 1961 at Bay of Pigs. In January 1962, Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States. In May 1962, USSR leader Nikita Khrushchev secretly built missile installations in Cuba as a means of countering any future American invasion, in exchange for sugar. The discovery, by American president J. F. Kennedy in October 1962, of the Russian missile installations in Cuba was the beginning of the most serious cold war crisis. He declared that any nuclear missile attack from Cuba would be taken to be an attack by the USSR and USA would respond accordingly. USA declared a Naval Quarantine on Cuba to blockade any Russian Vessels This most serious cold war crisis was only ended when the Russian leader Khrushchev removed the missiles from Cuba and dismantled Russia s bases in Cuba. The Cold War in Africa. The cold war in Africa was majorly witnessed in Ethiopia and Angola. Page 34 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke In Ethiopia, Mengistu Haile - Mariam, overthrew Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974, with the assistance of USSR. Haile Mariam introduced socialist programmes, However, they were short-lived up to the end of his rule in May 1991, when Russians withdrew their assistance. In Angola, on 11th November 1975, Angola attained her independence from Portugal, with the assistance of the Soviet Union and Cuba. Soon after, a bruising civil war broke out.


Haile Mariam introduced socialist programmes, However, they were short-lived up to the end of his rule in May 1991, when Russians withdrew their assistance. In Angola, on 11th November 1975, Angola attained her independence from Portugal, with the assistance of the Soviet Union and Cuba. Soon after, a bruising civil war broke out. USA supported the rebels, led by Jonas Savimbi and his UNITA movement based in Ovimbudu. Cuba and Russia supported the MPLA government based in Luanda. Democratic elections were held in Angola in 1989, when USSR eased their aid to MPLA. FACTORS that led to the Cold War d tente by world powers. A The death of Stalin and the flexibility of Stalin s successor, Nikita Khrushchev. The successor of Joseph Stalin, after his death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev, was more flexible and willing to relax both cold war abroad and Authoritarianism at home. He announced the policy of peaceful coexistence in 1956. B The willingness of David Dwight Eisenhower, Truman s successor, to reach compromise with the Soviet Union over a number of issues. For example he convened the Camp David Summit in 1959, with Khrushchev in which a cooperative spirit emerged between the east and the west. However this happened against the backdrop of the Cuban missile crisis. C The signing of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty The SALT Treaty in 1972. The treaty, signed between USA and Russia limited strategic arms to certain quantities. This was followed by the Improvement of the Chinese -American relations in 1972 and American relations with Russia. In 1972. President Nixon visited Beijing and Moscow d The introduction of reforms in Russia by Mikhail Gorbachev. In 1985, Gorbachev introduced the Glasnost openness policy and the perestroika reforms economic restructuring that appealed favourably to the west which won him the Nobel peace Prize in 1990. E The adoption of President Reagan s Strategic Defence Initiative SDI in 1983. This initiative led to setting up of space stations that would destroy every missile in the sky. This was Star Wars. F The collapse of the Communist rule in Europe. Russia s president recognized the independence of other republics of USSR in 1989 thus weakening Russia s position.


This was Star Wars. F The collapse of the Communist rule in Europe. Russia s president recognized the independence of other republics of USSR in 1989 thus weakening Russia s position. Western democracy was introduced in Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and Poland. G The successful re-unification of Germany under Helmut Kohl in 1990. The nations united to form the republic of Germany. This was a clear indicator of the joint commitment of the superpowers in maintaining their spheres of influence had been weakened. H The dissolution of the Warsaw Pact. With the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, the Warsaw pact started to fall apart. In November 1990, the Paris Charter was signed, effectively dissolving the Warsaw Pact. Page 35 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke i The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990. Several of its states seceded. Russia officially became an aid receiver instead of an aid donor. J The signing of the START Treaty in 1991 by Gorbachev and George Bush, after the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks. The treaty officially ended the cold war. Destruction of weapons of mass destruction commenced. Effects of the cold war a. It brought immense divisions and conflict to people of the same continent, region and countries based on pro-west or pro-east ideologies. E.g. in Angola b. Oppressive regimes found their way to power, supported by either the west or the east. C. There was untold suffering to the people. Disease, poverty and refugee camps became common sights. D. There was destruction of the economy as infrastructure was destroyed by war. As communist systems failed to produce wealth, unemployment and poverty set in. E. It created mistrust and suspicion amongst nations. F. It led to arms race. It led to militarization of regions and countries. G. It led to political crises and actual war e.g. civil wars in Korea and Vietnam, the Suez Canal crisis of 1956 and the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. H. It threatened international peace and security. Insecurity in the world increased. I. Led to formation of Non-Aligned Movement by third world countries. J. Led to formation of economic alliances and military alliances like NATO 1949 and the Warsaw pact 1955 . COMECON 1949 and the European Economic Union 1957. K. The cold war led to development in science and technology.


COMECON 1949 and the European Economic Union 1957. K. The cold war led to development in science and technology. The war Stimulated space science space race. Effects of the end of Cold War on Africa. A Some African countries that were formerly socialist are in problems following collapse of USSR in 1990. E.g. Somalia, Ethiopia, Angola and Mozambique. B The end of the cold war has led to the removal of financial aid and military support for some African countries. Military or food aid is no longer rushed to countries experiencing problems because there is no more superpower competition. E.g failure to prevent the Rwanda genocide and failure to assist in the Somali crisis and the current Al-shabaab crisis. C There was emergence of new world political and economic order. The end of war has led to emergence of USA as a world policeman over developing nations. The countries must act according to USA wishes or suffer lack of aid and receive harassment from superpowers. D It has led to marginalization of Africa in international affairs. E There are conditionalties for getting aid from the western powers. Besides, Africa no longer has a choice of donors who comprise mainly of western world countries. Page 36 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke COOPERATION IN AFRICA Cooperation in Africa refers to the way African countries relate to each other. It is stimulated by the economic exploitation and political domination by Western Europe. The cooperation has been in form of; a Pan-African Movement b Organization of African Unity African Union c The East African Community d Economic Community of Western African States. E Common Markets for Eastern and Southern Africa. PAN-AFRICANISM. Meaning of Pan-Africanism. Pan means all and Africa refers to the continent. Africanism refers to those of African Origin. Pan-Africanism is a belief in the uniqueness and spiritual Unity of Black people acknowledging their right to self determination. It is a movement aimed at unifying all the people of African descent in the world. It stands for economic, political and social advancement for all peoples of African descent throughout the world. Origin and Development of pan-Africanism. The movement has roots in the trans-Atlantic slave trade that took place between 15th and 19th c. the trade was responsible for the dispersal of black people all over the world.


Origin and Development of pan-Africanism. The movement has roots in the trans-Atlantic slave trade that took place between 15th and 19th c. the trade was responsible for the dispersal of black people all over the world. The suffering the slaves underwent made them become conscious of their colour and origin. The Africans viewed themselves as having a common destiny. Even those who remained in Africa were later subjected to the colonial experience including forced labour, land alienation, taxation, poor wages, discrimination corporal punishment rape and murder. The movement first started as the Pan Black Movement for the American and Caribbean black only. Several African Americans wanted to uplift the lives of fellow Africans in USA and in Africa. They included Martin Delaney, Alexander Cromwell, Bishop James Johnson, Wilmot Blyden and Bishop Turner. The leading pan-Africanists in America were Booker T Washington, Marcus Moziah Garvey, Dr. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois and George Padmore. The pioneer African pan-Africanists included Kwegyir Aggrey from Gold Coast, Wilmot Blyden from Liberia, Kwame Nkrumah from Ghana and Leopold Sedar Senghor. The Pan Black Movements enlisted all blacks worldwide. It sometimes was called Pan Negro Movement and was pitted against the evils of racism. Pan Black Movement gave birth to Pan-African Movement, which had its first meeting in London in 1900 attended by 32 delegates, drawn from USA, Africa, Canada, West Indies and Britain. Sylvester Williams, a lawyer from Trinidad, coined the term Pan-Africanism. Page 37 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke By 1920, an all-African idea had been developed. The first pan-African congress for Africans was held in Manchester -England in 1945, also attended by Jomo Kenyatta. Causes of pan-Africanism. A The Trans-Atlantic slave trade. It took place between 15th and 18th centuries. Africans who were forced into slavery in America during this period suffered a lot under the white people. The Africans in Diaspora, through humiliation and sadness realized they had a common destiny. B Colonization of Africa. The division of Africa into 50 colonies separated some communities. It also put together various people of different history and culture. The divide and rule tactics of colonialists brought deep divisions among same communities.


Marcus Garvey 1887-1940 He was born on 17th August 1887 in the West Indies island of Jamaica to a family of freed slaves. The fact that Marcus was very dark is what shaped his philosophy of PanAfricanism. While a young man, he witnessed great European and Mullato discrimination on account of his complexion. He arrived in USA in 1916 after widely travelling in south and Central America and Britain. While in England, he was greatly encouraged by Mohammed Duse to lead the peoples of African descent all over the world in the struggle for liberation. He developed the Pan-African philosophy in USA through which he sought to make Africans take pride in their blackness and cultural heritage. He founded the Negro Empire in New York in 1920. He organized a black convention in 1924 in New York during which he launched the Universal Negro Improvement Association UNIA whose HQs were to be at Harlem, New York. UNIA had the following objectives; To create universal fraternity among the Black Race. To assist uplift the civilization of African communities. To establish a central nation for the black race. To establish academies for African children. To promote African cultures. Garvey founded a Journal The Negro World and the African Orthodox Church under a black Patriarch or chief Bishop and a Black Madonna as the symbol of his church. He advocated for the return to Africa by the Africans. To Garvey, freedom was to be gained through economic empowerment of Africans. To this end, he mobilized African Americans to contribute funds to establish black businesses like the Black Starline Shopping Company. The project however collapsed due to mismanagement. He was arrested, tried and convicted of fraud collecting funds unlawfully and imprisoned for five years. He was deported to his home country Jamaica after two years in Jail where he died in 1940 He is credited for succeeding in mobilizing Africans to take pride in their cultures and complexion. 2. Booker T. Washington. 1856-1915 He was born in 1856 in USA to a poor slave family. He acquired a university degree in Agriculture at Hampton Institute. He is credited for promoting African Education. He started a model institute for training blacks in agricultural and industrial skills the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama . Unfortunately, Washington adopted a policy of cooperation with the government as a means of winning acceptance by the European community.


He is credited for promoting African Education. He started a model institute for training blacks in agricultural and industrial skills the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama . Unfortunately, Washington adopted a policy of cooperation with the government as a means of winning acceptance by the European community. To him, Africans ought to gain wealth in order to attain equal status with Europeans and end racial discrimination. He began the National Negro Business League with the help of a European Andrew Carnegie. He died in 1915. 3. Dr. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois. He was born in great Barrington, Massachusetts, USA on 23rd February 1868. Page 39 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke He was the first black to receive a PHD Degree and become a professor of History, Economics and Sociology. He was also a renowned journalist. He greatly disagreed with Booker T. Washington s policy of accommodation and cooperation. In 1905, he established the Niagara Movement to protest against racial discrimination. In 1900, he was one of the founder members of the National Association for the advancement of Coloured Peoples NAACP an association that championed for the struggle for Negroes civil rights in America. He prepared the pan-African conferences that were held between 1900 and 1945 to fight against slavery, colonial exploitation and repression of African peoples. He was the chairman of the Manchester Conference of 1945.. In 1961, he relocated to Ghana where he became a citizen, on invitation of Nkrumah. He died in 1963 in Ghana. THE PAN-AFRICAN CONGRESSES 1900-1945 a The 1st pan-African conference, London, 1900. It was held at the Westminster Townhall from 23rd to 25th July with 32 participants from Africa, USA, Canada and West Indies. The conference was sponsored by a Trinidad lawyer Henry Sylvester Williams who coined the term Pan-Africanism. The conference marked the entry of Du Bois into Pan Africanism where he made his famous statement The problem of the 20th c is the problem of colourline . Objectives of the conference. To unite people of African origin in all parts of the world. To appeal for the end of European colonization and exploitation of Africa. To look for ways of establishing better relations between the Caucasian and African races.


To unite people of African origin in all parts of the world. To appeal for the end of European colonization and exploitation of Africa. To look for ways of establishing better relations between the Caucasian and African races. To initiate a movement for securing the full rights for all Africans in and outside Africa and promote the economic rights. To appeal to missionaries and philanthropists in Britain to protect Africans against aggression by colonizers. Conference Agenda Human Rights Violation against blacks in South Africa. Living conditions of blacks in different parts of the world. Racial discrimination against Africans all over the world. The conference sent a Memorandum to the Queen of England demanding respect for the rights of Black People especially in the British Empire. B The 2nd Pan-African Conference, Paris, 1919. The conference coincided with the Paris Peace conference. The conference was convened by William Du bois who had been sent to Paris by NAACP to investigate the allegations that African American troops stationed in France during world war I experienced racial discrimination and to represent the interest of the black peoples at the Paris peace conference. The conference made the following recommendations; The need for international laws to protect Black people. African land to be held in trust for Africans. The prevention of exploitation of African nations by foreign companies. Page 40 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke The rights of Africans to be educated. That slavery and capital punishment were to be abolished. The right of Africans to participate in their government as fast as their development permitted. C The 3rd Pan-African Conference 1921. The conference was held in three sessions in London, Brussels and Paris. The London session was attended by 41 Africans, 35 American coloureds, 7 West Indies and 24 Africans living in Europe at that time. It was patronaged by Du Bois. The conference demanded for the establishment of political organizations among the suppressed blacks. It emphasized international and interracial harmony and democracy. D The 4th Pan-African congress London and Lisbon 1923. It reiterated earlier resolutions and also demanded that black people be treated like human beings. E The 5th Pan-African Conference, New York 1927. It was mainly attended by African Americans and was partly sponsored by European Philanthropists. It discussed the attitude of the communists towards pan-Africanism.


E The 5th Pan-African Conference, New York 1927. It was mainly attended by African Americans and was partly sponsored by European Philanthropists. It discussed the attitude of the communists towards pan-Africanism. F The 6th Pan African conference, Manchester 1945.it coincided with the end of the World War II. It was convened by the Pan African Federation which had been formed in 1944 by 13 organizations representing students welfare and political groupings. Leaders of the federation were George Padmore, Ras Makonnen Ethiopia . C.L.R Wallace Johnson and Jomo Kenyatta. The conference was greatly inspired by the liberation of Ethiopia in 1941 and Clause three of the Atlantic Charter 1941 that USA and British governments would respect the right of all people to choose the form of government under which to live which Winston Churchill claimed was not applicable to the Africans. The conference was convened on 15th oct. 1945 and was attended by 90 delegates who included Du Bois West Indies , Nkrumah Ghana , Kenyatta kenya , Padmore Trinidad , peter Abrahams south Africa , Ras Makonnen Ethiopia , Magnus Williams representing Azikiwa Nnamdi Nigeria , Obafemi Owolowo Nigeria and Kamuzu Banda Malawi and 11 observer nations Du bois chaired the conference while Nkrumah and Padmore were joint secretaries. Uniqueness of the conference. A The conference was mainly organized by Africans from the continent unlike earlier ones which were organized by the Africans in Diaspora. The only exceptions were W.E.B Du Bois and Padmore. B Representatives of white philanthropists were absent. Neither did they finance the conference. C Many African trade unions were represented. These included the trade Unions from Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Ghana and Gambia. Most of West Indies was also represented. Key Resolution of the Manchester Conference a. Africans should concentrate on winning political power through non-violent means e.g strikes and boycotts. B. African intellectuals should play an important role in mobilizing the masses to fight for political liberation.


Africans should concentrate on winning political power through non-violent means e.g strikes and boycotts. B. African intellectuals should play an important role in mobilizing the masses to fight for political liberation. Page 41 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Pursuant to the conference resolutions, Kwame Nkrumah established the West African National Secretariat WANS on 15th December 1945 in England to act as a regional body for Pan African Federation, promote unity in West Africa. WANS published a newsletter, The New African, whose main aim was to inspire the youth in Africa to resist imperialism. Why the 1945 Manchester Pan-African Congress was a landmark in the history of Africa. A For the first time leading African representatives in the continent attended e.g. Jomo Kenyatta, Kwame Nkrumah, Kamuzu Banda, Haile Sellasie etc. On coming back , they all adopted radical nationalistic demands for independence of their states. B It was the first congress that strongly condemned European colonization of Africa and demanded the autonomy and liberty of African states. C The congress was instrumental in granting of independence to Ghana in 1957 and to Egypt soon after. D It set the pace for organization of similar conferences in the African continent like; the 1958 All African Congress and the 1960 Tunis-Pan African People s Conference. E During the conference, the solidarity and unity among Africans began to develop and paved way to the formation of Organization of African Unity. F It marked the establishment of the movement s activities in Africa. Why pan-African movement was not active in Africa before 1945 a There was lack of adequate African representation in the movement before 1945. Africans in the movement were few and were staying outside Africa as political exiles or students. B Colonial authorities could not allow Africans to organize a movement that was against their policies. Such movements were outlawed. C The divide and rule policy used by the Europeans made it impossible for Africans to communicate and cooperate. D Africans in each colony were mainly concerned with issues that affected them directly e.g. Land alienation, forced labour and taxation. E The only Countries that were independent Liberia and Ethiopia could not champion pan-Africanism since they had their own internal problems and paid little attention to international matters e.g.


D Africans in each colony were mainly concerned with issues that affected them directly e.g. Land alienation, forced labour and taxation. E The only Countries that were independent Liberia and Ethiopia could not champion pan-Africanism since they had their own internal problems and paid little attention to international matters e.g. Ethiopia and Liberia. F Lack of venue to hold meetings on the African soil since the colonial government would not have allowed such meetings. G Poor state of transport and communication at the time did not permit fast spread of Pan-Africanism. H Few people were educated and only a minority in Africa had higher education hence there was widespread illiteracy and ignorance. I Africans were too poor to contribute to pan-African efforts. The role of Kwame Nkrumah in Pan-Africanism. A He participated in the 1945 Manchester Conference as the secretary during which he proposed that delegates go back to their countries and spearhead the nationalist struggle for political independence. Page 42 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke b He established the West African National Secretariat WANS in England to coordinated pan African federation activities in West Africa and promote panAfricanism. C He founded the Convention People s Party CPP in 1949which led Ghana to Independence in 1957. D As president of Ghana, Nkrumah inspired many African countries to struggle for political independence, and the black civil rights movement in the USA to fight for their rights. E In 1958, he hosted the first pan-African conference of independent states in Accra which pledged to assist fellow Africans to fight for political independence. F He funded nationalists in other countries e.g. Ghana and Algeria. G He supported other African leaders who faced political threats from their former colonial masters. For example he assisted the Guinean leader, Sekou Toure , with Loans following the withdrawal of French support to the country after independence h He championed trade unionism in Africa as a means of promoting pan-Africanism. During the Manchester conference as a joint secretary with George Padmore, he allowed participation of trade Unions from Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Ghana and Gambia. I He participated in convening various pan-African conferences that led to the formation of O.A.U, an association of independent African states.


For example he assisted the Guinean leader, Sekou Toure , with Loans following the withdrawal of French support to the country after independence h He championed trade unionism in Africa as a means of promoting pan-Africanism. During the Manchester conference as a joint secretary with George Padmore, he allowed participation of trade Unions from Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Ghana and Gambia. I He participated in convening various pan-African conferences that led to the formation of O.A.U, an association of independent African states. NB- it is most probably because of his fight against western domination that Nkrumah was eventually overthrown in 1966 in a military coup that forced him into exile. He died on 27th April 1972 in Bucharest, Romania, where he had gone to seek treatment for cancer. Reasons why the pan-African movement became active in Africa after 1945. A World War II strengthened nationalism in the continent. The Africans quest for political independence received a boost with support from UNO, USA and USSR. B The 1945 Pan-African Conference in Manchester, brought many African elites together. They later inspired their colleagues back home to join the movement. C The attainment of political independence in India in 1947 and Burma now Myanmar in 1948 encouraged many nationalists in Africa. D The slowing down of the pan0africanism activities in America during the cold war period activated the same in Africa. USA tried to control activities of people like Padmore who had links with USSR. E The attainment of independence by Ghana in 1957 inspired other African nations to focus on the liberation of their respective countries rather than fight for the betterment of fellow Africans outside the continent. Performance of the Pan-African Movement.. Achievements of Pan-Africanism. A The movement created political awareness among people of African origin and a sense of deep concern for suffering of blacks all over the world. Page 43 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke b It put in place Steps towards the restoration of status and dignity to the African people, which had been eroded by slave trade, colonialism and racism. C The movement provided an important forum where the people of African origin could discuss their problems. It promoted brotherhood among Africans. D The movement led to the Development of the spirit of solidarity among the African people when dealing with issues that concern the continent.


C The movement provided an important forum where the people of African origin could discuss their problems. It promoted brotherhood among Africans. D The movement led to the Development of the spirit of solidarity among the African people when dealing with issues that concern the continent. E It laid the basis for the Formation of OAU, which later became the African Union AU . F The movement enabled African leaders to be more committed to African issues. For example the black caucus in the USA played an important role in pressurizing the US congress to take drastic measures against the Apartheid regime in South Africa. G The movement laid the foundation for the interest in research on African culture, history, literature, music, religion, medicine, art, etc. This empowered Africans by enabling them to understand the status quo. H The movement played an important role in the advancement of African nationalism by encouraging peoples of African origin to take pride in their ancestry and demand their rights. I The movement condemned Mussolini s attempt to colonize Ethiopia in 1935 by organizing protests in major towns like New York, London, Brussels and Paris. Challenges encountered by the pan African movement. A Many European groups fought the activities of the pan Africanists. The fact that Marcus Garvey was arrested, tried and convicted of fraud collecting funds unlawfully and imprisoned for five years is a clear manifestation of this. B It was difficult for the Africans to participate in African affairs since majority of Africans were still under colonialism. C Due to lack of economic empowerment and lack of education, many of the pan African projects did not succeed. The Marcus Garvey project for instance collapsed due to mismanagement. D Illiteracy and ignorance amongst some people of African origin hindered them from offering constructive support. E The movement was restricted to the African continent after independence in 1960s. The absence of African-Americans in the continents affairs dealt a big to its progress. F Division among Africans after independence e.g. Radical and the conservative leaders and between the francophone and the Anglophone countries. G The European powers domination of the international media was used to water down the importance of pan-Africans by spreading negative propaganda. H Some of the pan-African leaders could not agree on the best strategy of uplifting the welfare of the African origin peoples. I The deep economic connection between colonies and the mother countries hindered any meaningful cooperation.


G The European powers domination of the international media was used to water down the importance of pan-Africans by spreading negative propaganda. H Some of the pan-African leaders could not agree on the best strategy of uplifting the welfare of the African origin peoples. I The deep economic connection between colonies and the mother countries hindered any meaningful cooperation. J Lack of venues to hold conferences in Africa especially before 1957 meant that the movement could not take root in Africa quickly. The far-away venues were inconveniencing. Page 44 For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke The Pan-African movement activities after 1950. Despite the challenges mentioned, the movement was still active in Africa after 1950 as manifested in the political developments that took place in the 1950s and 1960s. The following conferences were convened during that period. 1 The 1st Conference of Independent African States, Accra, Ghana April 1958. In attendance were the eight independent African states of Ghana, Egypt, Morocco, Ethiopia, Liberia, Tunisia Sudan and Libya. The delegates pledged to assist fellow African countries who were fighting for political independence.. 2 The All-African Peoples conference, Accra De. 1958 the conference was attended by freedom fighters and trade unionists from all over Africa. It was chaired by Tom Mboya of Kenya The conference s main resolution was to use all means to acquire political independence and to encourage unity between the African leaders. 3 The All-African Peoples Conference, Tunis, January 1960. It strengthened the desire for unity among African states. 4 The 2nd Conference of Independent African States, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, June 1960. The conference was the forerunner to the formation of a continental Body, OAU. The conference exposed sharp division among African states over the situation in Congo, where Patrice Lumumba was facing problems with his former colonial masters. 5 The Brazzaville Conference December 1960 Attended exclusively by the 12 francophone conservative African states, the conference emphasized the need to respect international Frontiers and noninterference in the internal affairs of any African state. They promised political support for Mauritania in her boundary disputes with morocco. 6 The Casablanca conference, January 1961.