Controls weeds that are specific to certain crops e.g. striga on cerealsImproves soil fertility when legumes are included in crop rotation. Factors Influencing Rotational ProgrammeGrowth habits and nutrient req uirements. Liability to soil erosion. Crops attacked by the same pests and diseases should not follow one another in the programme. Availability of capital and market for example beans or peas in legumes. MulchingThis is the placement of materials such as banana leaves or polythene sheets on the ground next to the growing crop. These materials should not come into contact with the base of the crop as they may encourage pest attack. Importance of MulchingReduction of evaporation rate. Smothers weeds. Moderation of soil temperature. Reduction of speed of run offs. Types of Mulching MaterialsOrganic mulching materials such as;Sawdust, wood shavings, coffee pulps, rice husks,Dry grass, banana leaves, dry maize stalk, napier grass. Inorganic or synthetic materials commonly used are either black or transparent polythene sheets. Advantages of MulchingPrevents water evaporation thus maintaining moisture in the soil for crop use. Acts as an insulator thus modifying the soil temperature. It helps to control soil erosion. It controls weeds by suppressing them. After decomposition organic mulch add nutrients to the soil thus improving its fertility. Humus produced after the decomposition of organic mulch improves soil structure and the water holding capacity of the soil. Disadvantages of MulchingIt is a fire risk. Provides a breeding ground as well as a hiding place for pests that finally may attack the crops. Traps the light showers of rainfall thus lowering the chances of rain drops reaching the soil. It is expensive to acquire, transport and apply. Routine Field PracticesThinningRemoval of excess, weak, damaged or diseased seedlings. Allows the remaining seedlings to get enough nutrients and moisture. It is aimed at obtaining optimum plant population. GappingFilling the gaps so as to maintain proper plant population. Gaps occur as a result of failure of seeds to germinate or dying of seedlings. It should be done early enough for the seedlings to catch up with the other plantsRogueingThis is the removal and destruction of a diseased part of a plant or the whole plant. The destruction can be achieved through burning of the uprooted plant.


Gaps occur as a result of failure of seeds to germinate or dying of seedlings. It should be done early enough for the seedlings to catch up with the other plantsRogueingThis is the removal and destruction of a diseased part of a plant or the whole plant. The destruction can be achieved through burning of the uprooted plant. PruningRemoval of extra unwanted parts of the plant. Reasons for pruning are:To remove old, unproductive or diseased, damaged parts of the plant. To train plants to take a desirable shape for example formative pruning in tea. To control crop leave ratio hence avoiding overbearing. To control diseases and pests for example antestia bugs in coffee. To facilitate other operations such as spraying, picking and seeding. To reduce wastage of chemicals applied on the crop. To remove branches that interfere with traffic, telephone lines and view. Open up the plant to allow free air circulation and exposure of leaves to sunlight. Note: Tools used are secateur, pruning saw and pruning knife. Earthing-upThis is the placement of soil in form of a heap around the base of the plant. It is mostly carried out in tuber crops such as Irish and sweet potatoes to improve tuber formation. It is also carried out in groundnuts and maize. In groundnuts it promotes production of pods while in maize it provides support to prevent lodging. Crop ProtectionWeed ControlWeeds are plants growing where they are not wanted, that is a plant out of place. Such plants include blackjack, couch grass, thorn apple and Mcdonald's eye. Such plants should be eradicated or controlled using recommended methods. Pest ControlCrop pests are living organisms that are harmful to the crops. They include; insects, nematodes, rodents, thrips and mites. They cause great damage to crops in the field and stored produce. Control of Crop DiseasesA disease is any alteration in the state of an organism and functions of a plant or its parts. Disease causing organisms are known as pathogens. They include fungi, viruses and bacteria. Diseases caused by fungi are referred to as fungal diseases while those caused by viruses and bacteria are referred to as viral and bacterial respectively. HarvestingIt is the gathering or of the farm produce after maturity. Time of harvesting depends on:Stage of maturity of the crops. Use of the crop. Tastes and preferences of consumers. Weather conditions, hence liability to spoilage.


Use of the crop. Tastes and preferences of consumers. Weather conditions, hence liability to spoilage. Moisture. Methods of harvesting is determined by:Scale of farming for example large scale farming machines are used. Type of crop for example pyrethrum is harvested by hand. Uniformity in ripening of the crop for example wheat is harvested by use of combined harvester while coffee is harvested by hand. Uniformity in height of the crop and size of seed, fruits and flowers. Financial status of the farmer. Part of the plant to be harvested. Post-Harvest PracticesThese are the preparations carried out on crop produce before it gets to the consumer. They include;Threshing shelling. Drying. Cleaning. Sorting and grading. Dusting. Processing. Packaging. StoragePurpose of storage is to;Prevent spoilageMake the produce available for future useTo await good market prices. Requirements for proper store are:It should be clean. It should be well ventilated. It should be raised from the ground to prevent damp conditions. It should be dry. It should be strong to hold crop produce. It should be easy to clean. It should be vermin-proof. It should be secure from theft. It should be treated against pests such as weevils. Types of StorageTraditional storage structures. Modern storage structures. Preparation of the StoreCleaning the store. MaintenanceDusting the store with appropriate chemicals. Clearing the vegetation around the store to keep off vermin. Crop Production V: Vegetables IntroductionA vegetable is any crop that is grown and eaten fresh. Vegetables are important both for nutritional and commercial reasons. They are categorized on the basis of the part used as food. Such parts include;Leaves,Stems,Roots,Fruits,Flowers,PodsBulbs. Vegetables are grouped into the following categories:Leaf vegetables for example kales and cabbages. Root vegetables for example carrots, beets, radishes and turnips. Fruit vegetables for example French beans and okra. Stem vegetables for example asparagus, leeks and spring onions. Bulb vegetables for example bulbed onions and garlic. Tomatoes Lycopersicon esculentum Tomatoes are fruit vegetables widely grown in Kenya. The ripe fruit may be eaten raw cooked or processed to make tomato sauces, juices and pastes.


Bulb vegetables for example bulbed onions and garlic. Tomatoes Lycopersicon esculentum Tomatoes are fruit vegetables widely grown in Kenya. The ripe fruit may be eaten raw cooked or processed to make tomato sauces, juices and pastes. Ecological RequirementsAltitude: 0-2100m above sea level. Rainfall: 7S0-1300mm per annum. Soils: deep, fertile and well drained. VarietiesFresh market varieties:Money maker,Marglobe, hundred fold,Beef eater,Hot set,Super marmandePonderosa. Processing varieties:Kenya beauty,San -marzano,Roma,Heinz 13S0,Primabel,Rutgers hybridCal- J. Nursery PracticesChoose a site which has not been grown Solanaceae crop in the last three years. Nursery beds are raised about 15cm above the ground level. Make drills of 20cm apart and 1cm deep drill and cover the seeds. Provide shade or mulch material. Water twice a day. Apply phosphatic fertilizers during planting. Seedbed PreparationThe land should be dug deeply to control weeds. TransplantingSeedlings are ready for transplanting when they are 10-15cmhigh after about one month. Holes are made at a spacing of 60cm x 90cm. Apply 20gm of DSP in the planting hole. Transplant with a ball of soil around the roots. Apply mulch around each seedling. Transplanting is normally in the evening or on a cloudy day. Field MaintenanceEarly control of weeds is necessary. Top dressing is done after crop establishes. Pruning and staking are done to train the plants to grow vertically. Pests ControlsAmerican BollwormNature of damage: boring holes on the fruits. Control: spraying insecticides. Tobacco White FlyNature of damage: suck plant sap from the underside of the leaf, hence may transmit viral diseases. Control: Destroy infected plant and spray insecticides. Disease ControlLate BlightCause: FungusSymptoms: dry patches on the leaves and fruits. Control: use of fungicides, crop rotation and destruction of affected materials. Blossom-end RotCaused by;Too much nitrogen in early stages. Irregular or infrequent watering. Calcium deficiency.


Blossom-end RotCaused by;Too much nitrogen in early stages. Irregular or infrequent watering. Calcium deficiency. Control: Apply calcium ammonium nitrate and correction of the above problems. HarvestingFor canning, fruits should be fully ripe. For fresh market, fruits should be partially ripe and packed in crates to avoid damage. The fruits should be graded according to;Size,Colour,RipenessFreedom from blemishes. CabbageIt is a leaf vegetable related to other brassica crops such as kales, cauliflower, Chinese cabbage and Brussels sprouts. Cabbage leaves may be eaten raw in salads, steamed, boiled or cooked in a variety of ways. The leaves can also be fed to livestock. Ecological RequirementsAltitude:Those with small heads: 900-1500m above sea levelThose with Large heads: 1800-2700m above sea level. Temperature: require cool condition. Rainfall:750-2000mm per annum. Should be well distributed throughout the growing period. Soils:Deep,FertileWell drained. VarietiesEarly maturing:Brunswick,Sugar loaf,Early jersey,Copenhagen market,Chinese cabbage,Celery cabbage,Cafe splits koolGloria, mukuki,Golden acre . Late maturing:Drumhead,Savoy,Perfection,Winningstadt. Nursery PracticesThe beds should be raised, dimension 1 m wide and any convenient length usually 2-3m in length . Make drills of 15-20cm apart. Sow seeds by drilling and cover to a depth of 1 cm. Provide shade or mulch material. Apply phosphatic fertilizers and mix thoroughly with soil during planting. Water twice a day. Seedbed PreparationCultivation should be done during the dry season so that all the weeds are killed. Dig holes at the spacing of 60cm x 60cm. Incorporate farm yard manure in the soil. TransplantingWater the seedlings before uprooting. Seedlings are ready for transplanting after one month that is when they are 1O-15cm in height. Select healthy and vigorous seedlings. Transplant the seedlings with balls of soil to prevent root damage. Plant to the same depth as they were in the nursery. Field MaintenanceApply fertilizers during planting and top dress later. Control weeds to reduce competition.


Plant to the same depth as they were in the nursery. Field MaintenanceApply fertilizers during planting and top dress later. Control weeds to reduce competition. Pest ControlDiamond Black MothDamage: Eats the underside of the leaf making windows or holes in the leaf. Control: Spray recommended insecticides. CutwormsDamage: Attacks the stem at the ground level causing he plant to fall. Control: Spray recommended insecticides. Disease ControlBlack RotCause: BacteriaSymptoms: Leaves turn yellow and rotting of the stem giving an offensive odour,Control: Closed season, crop rotation, use certified seeds and spray appropriate chemicals. Black LegCause: FungusSymptoms: Brown to black spots on seedlings and dark canker on the stem. Control: crop rotation, destroy infected materials. HarvestingCabbages are ready for harvesting 3-4 months after transplanting. The heads are cut when they are solid and compact. Harvested cabbages are sold immediately. Carrots Daucus carota It is a root vegetable grown in the cool areas of Kenya. It is commonly eaten raw in salads but can also be cooked. Ecological RequirementsAltitude: 0-2,900m above sea level. Rainfall:750 - 1,000mm. Well distributed throughout the growing period. Soils:It requires deep,Fine tilthWell drained soils that are free from obstacles to allow for root expansion. Temperatures: it requires cool to warm temperatures as very high temperatures result in the production of pale and short roots. VarietiesFresh market varieties for example Chantenay and Nantes. Canning varieties for example NantesFodder varieties for example Oxhast. Land PreparationThe field should be well dug to a depth of about 20cm. The soil clods should be broken to give a fine tilth before planting. Manure should not be applied as it induces forking which reduces the crop quality. PlantingCarrots are planted directly into the main seedbed. Seeds are drilled into rows made 20-30cm apart. The seeds are then covered lightly and the soil pressed down. 90kg ha of DSP should be applied at planting time in the drills. It should be mixed well with the soils before placing the seeds. Field PracticeThinning -- it is done 2 weeks after germination.


90kg ha of DSP should be applied at planting time in the drills. It should be mixed well with the soils before placing the seeds. Field PracticeThinning -- it is done 2 weeks after germination. Weed control- the field should be kept weed free. Earthing up should be done while weeding to encourage root expansion .. Topdressing: after weeding 60kg of nitrogen per hectare should be applied as top dress. Irrigation - this should be carried out where or when there is not enough rainfall. Pest ControlCarrots do not have many field pests except the green aphids. These can be controlled by use of the appropriate pesticides. Disease ControlOccasionally attached by the mildews especially in wet and humid environment. Thinning can be done to reduce humid conditions. Harvesting and MarketingCarrots are ready for harvesting 3-5 months after planting depending on the variety. They are lifted from the soil and sold fresh or canned. Onions Allium cepa Onions are bulb vegetables grown in the warm areas of Kenya. They are used as a vegetable in salads and for flavouring foods, soups and stews. Ecological RequirementsAltitude: 0-2, 100m above sea level. Rainfall:1,000mm of rain per yearIrrigation in dry areas . Soils:Requires well drained fertile soilspH of 6.0 - 7.0 . Temperatures:Onions are a warm climate crops. However, some varieties prefer cool conditions. They require a fairly long dry period for ripening. VarietiesRed creole,Tropicana hybridWhite creole. Land PreparationThe land should be well prepared leaving a fine tilth. Farm yard manure at 40 - 50 tonnes per hectare should be applied and mixed well with the soil. PlantingDirect: Seeds are drilled in rows 30cm apart and 8cm within the rows. 20kg ha of DSP fertilizer is used. Indirect: Seeds are established in the nurseries before transplanting them in rows 30cm apart and 8 cm within the rows. Shallow planting is recommended for bulb expansion. Field Management PracticesThinningIt is carried out only in the crop that has been directly planted so as to achieve spacing of 8cm between two plants within the row. The thinned plants referred to as spring onions are used as vegetables in salads.


Shallow planting is recommended for bulb expansion. Field Management PracticesThinningIt is carried out only in the crop that has been directly planted so as to achieve spacing of 8cm between two plants within the row. The thinned plants referred to as spring onions are used as vegetables in salads. TopdressingCalcium ammonium nitrate at the rate of 250kg per hectare is recommended for topdressing onions. This is done 3 months after planting. Pest ControlOnion Thrips:These cause silvering and withering of leaves from the tips downwards. They are controlled by spraying with appropriate insecticides such as Diazinon or fenthion. Disease ControlPurple Blotch and Downey MildewPurple blotch;Characterized by oval greyish lesions with purple centres on leaves. This causes leaf curling and die back. Downey mildew;Characterized by brown spores covering the leaves leading to death of the whole plant. The two diseases are effectively controlled by crop rotation and application of appropriate fungicides. Harvesting and MarketingOnions are ready for harvesting 5 months after planting. When leaves start drying the tops are broken or bent at the neck. This hastens the withering of the stems. The bulbs are then dug out and left to dry in a shade for a few days. Onions are graded according to size and marketed in nets of about 14 -16kgs. Livestock Health I Introduction to Livestock Health IntroductionHealth is the state of the body in which all the organs and systems are normal and functioning normally. Disease is any deviation from the normal health of the animal. Importance of Keeping Livestock Healthy:Healthy animals give high income due to low treatment costs. The productive life span of a healthy animal is longer. High production. Healthy animals can multiply regularly. Healthy animals give high quality products for example eggs. Safety of consumers of livestock products. Predisposing Factors to Livestock DiseasesThese are conditions within or around the animal that make it easy for an animal to contract a disease. They include:Animal factors such as;species,breed,age,sexcolour of the animal. Environmental factors such as;chilling,being rained on,exposure to hot sundampness. Management factors such as;poor feeding,housing,handlinghygiene,overcrowding .


They include:Animal factors such as;species,breed,age,sexcolour of the animal. Environmental factors such as;chilling,being rained on,exposure to hot sundampness. Management factors such as;poor feeding,housing,handlinghygiene,overcrowding . Signs of ILL-Health in LivestockAbnormal behaviour for example separation from the rest of the herd and restlessness. Abnormal posture for example limping and lameness. Alimentary canal disfunction such as blood stained faeces and abnormal defecation, diarrhoea and dysentery. Urination: high frequency or too low and having strange colour. Skin: rough with scaly skin, blisters on the skin and hair loss. Causes of DiseasesPathogenic causes ;viruses,rickettsia,bacteria,protozoafungi. Physical causes;fractures,dislocation,sprains . Nutritional disorders for example milk fever. Chemical causes for example poisoning by agrochemicals. Categories of DiseasesNotifiable diseases ;These are diseases which cause high economic losses. Any case should be reported to the Chiefs, D.O.s, veterinary officers or the police. Tick-borne diseases - Transmitted by ticks. Breeding diseases - Transmitted through mating. Nutritional diseases for example milk fever and bloat. Parasitic diseases for example ascariosis. General Methods of Disease ControlQuarantine. Vaccination. Control of vectors by use of acaricides and rotational grazing. Disinfecting the equipment and buildings. Use of preventive drugs. Proper feeding of livestock. Culling of the animals which are carriers slaughtering the affected animals. Use of artificial insemination to control breeding diseases. Proper selection and breeding of animals. Proper housing and hygiene,Isolating sick animals. Appropriate Methods of Handling LivestockAnimals are handled for the following reasons:When inspecting the animal to ascertain any abnormality or signs of diseases. When administering any form of treatment such as drenching, injection and mastitis control. When spraying or hand dressing the animal with chemicals to control external parasites. When milking the animal. When performing some of the management practices such as dehorning, disbudding, castration, hoof trimming . When carrying out these activities animals should be restrained in a crush.


When milking the animal. When performing some of the management practices such as dehorning, disbudding, castration, hoof trimming . When carrying out these activities animals should be restrained in a crush. Other methods of restraining animals include the use of;halters,ropes,bull ringlead stick. Livestock Health II Parasites IntroductionA parasite is an organism which obtains its livelihood from another organism host which suffers damage. Parasitism is the association between a parasite and a host. The effects of parasite on the host animal are:Depriving the host of its food. Sucking blood. Damaging the organs of the host. Cause irritation on the skin of the host. Destruction of hides and skins. Transmission of diseases. Cause obstruction in body passages. General Symptoms of Parasites Infestation:Emaciation. Pot bellied condition. Swellings in the jaw or other areas. Rough hair or rough coat. Anaemia. Diarrhoea. Presence of worm segments and blood stains in the defecation. Types of ParasitesThere are two types of parasites:External ecto-parasites Internal endo-parasites External parasites are;ticks,tsetse flies,mites,lice,fleaskedsLife Cycle of ticksEggs are laid in cracks on the ground. They hatch in 4-6 weeks into larvae which climb on the grass waiting for a passing animal. One-Host TickThis requires one host to complete its life cycle. Example: blue tick Boophilus decoloratus . Preferred sites: face, neck, dewlap and side of the body. Disease transmitted: Redwater and anaplasmosis. Two-Host TickThis requires two different hosts to complete its life cycle. Example: The red legged tick Rhipicephalus everts Preferred sites: Ears, anus, udder and the tail. Disease transmitted: Redwater and east coast fever. Example: Bont legged tick amblyomma spp. Preferred sites: Udder, scrotum and tail switch. Disease transmitted: Sweating sickness. Three-Host TickThis requires three hosts to complete its life cycle. Example: The brown ear tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus Preferred sites: Ears, tail switch and around the eyes. Disease transmitted: East coast fever and redwater.


Three-Host TickThis requires three hosts to complete its life cycle. Example: The brown ear tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus Preferred sites: Ears, tail switch and around the eyes. Disease transmitted: East coast fever and redwater. Bont tick transmit heartwater amblyomma spp. Control of TicksDipping spraying hand dressing with acaricides. Rotational grazing. Ploughing the land to break the life cycle. Hand picking and killing. Fencing of the grazing fields to keep off other animals including wild game. Burning of grass to kill them in various stages. Endo-parasites internal Parasites Endoparasites are helminths. They can be divided into:Platyhelminthes flatworms which include;Trematodes flukes Cestodes tapeworms . Nemato-helminthes nematodes. E.g Roundworms. General Symptoms of HelminthiasisDiarrhoea which foul the anal and tail region. Dullness. Anaemia. Big stomach pot bellied condition . Presence of worm segments in faeces. Coughing. Trematodes Liver Fluke There are two species of flukes:Fasciola giganticaFasciola hepatica. Fasciola hepatica is more common. It is commonly found in the liver and bile duct of cattle, sheep and goats. Liver fluke is a problem in marshy and low lying wet areas. Life Cycle of the Liver FlukeAdult fluke in the liver of the primary host lays eggs. Eggs pass through the bile duct into the small intestines and are passed out in faeces onto the pasture. Under moist conditions, they hatch into a miracidium larva which swims about in search of a secondary host fresh water snails . In the snail, it develops through sporocyst, redia and cercaria. When it leaves the snail, the cercaria gets encysted on vegetation and becomes metacercaria. This is swallowed by the primary host with grass. The young fluke migrates into the liver through blood vessels when it matures. Control of Liver FlukeKeep livestock off marshy areas near the rivers streams lakes and dams. Drench affected animals. Drainage of swampy areas.


Control of Liver FlukeKeep livestock off marshy areas near the rivers streams lakes and dams. Drench affected animals. Drainage of swampy areas. Eradicate the intermediate host by use of molluscicides. Provide water to livestock in elevated troughs. TapewormsThere are many species of tapewormsEexample;Taenia soliumTaenia saginata. The adults live in the small intestines of man the primary host . The intermediate host of Taenia solium is pig . The intermediate host of Taenia saginata is cattle. Life Cycle of TapewormAdult tapeworms live in man's intestines where it lays eggs. Eggs are passed out with faeces,Then they develop an outer covering known as onchosphere. The eggs are swallowed by intermediate host. The outer covering is digested and the young worm emerges. This bores into the blood vessels and is carried to specific muscles such as the tongue, heart, thigh muscles. It develops into an encysted form called bladder-worm. When the animal is killed and meat is eaten raw or in an inadequately cooked form, man gets infected by the bladder-worm. In man, the bladder-worm evaginates and attaches itself onto the intestinal wall where it develops into an adult. Control of TapewormsMeat should be well cooked before eating. Use of drugs in primary host. Meat inspection by meat inspectors veterinary officers. Use of pit latrines by man. Nematodes Roundworms Common ones are;Ascaris suum pig roundworms ,Ascaris lumbricoides found in man and sheepHaemonchus contortus found in sheep, cattle and goats. Roundworms are common in warm areas especially in areas where the standards of hygiene and sanitation are low. Nature of DamageDamage is done to the liver and lung tissues as they migrate in the body. Suck out blood. Deprive the host of food. Control of RoundwormsUse of drugs. Rotational grazing. Use of proper stocking rates to avoid overgrazing. Practicing high standards of cleanliness and hygiene such as use of latrines. Livestock Production II Nutrition IntroductionAnimals are fed for the purpose of production and body maintenance. The edible material given to animals is called food.


Practicing high standards of cleanliness and hygiene such as use of latrines. Livestock Production II Nutrition IntroductionAnimals are fed for the purpose of production and body maintenance. The edible material given to animals is called food. It is digested, absorbed and utilized in the body. Nutrients are organic and inorganic substances contained in the food materials. Components of Food materialwater,protein,carbohydrates,fats and oils,vitaminsmineral salts. WaterSourcesFree water through drinking Bound water contained in feeds . Metabolic water obtained from oxidation of food . FunctionsRegulates body temperature. Transport agent in the body. Universal solvent in the body. Gives shape to the cells turgidity . Acts as a lubricant. Acts as constituent of body fluids. Factors Determining the Requirements of Water by LivestockProduction level. Amount of dry matter eaten. Temperature of the surrounding area. Type of animal. Type of food eaten. ProteinSources:Groundnut cakes,cotton seed cakes,fish meal,meat meal. Functions:Growth of new tissues. Repair of worn out tissues body building . Synthesis of antibodies. Synthesis of hormones and enzymes. Production of energy during starvation. Digestion of ProteinsIn non-ruminants, protein digestion takes placed in the stomach. Food is subjected to mechanical breakdown through chewing into small particles. Protein is acted on by enzymes to turn into amino acid which is assimilated into the bloodstream. In ruminants, protein digestion initially takes place in the rumen. Food is acted on by micro-organisms into microbial protein. Later, enzymatic action takes place in the "true stomach" or abomasum where proteins are broken down into amino acids which are then assimilated into the bloodstream. CarbohydratesSources:Cereals,tuberscommercially mixed feeds. Functions:Supply energy and heat to the body. Excess is stored in form of fat for insulation of the body. Digestion of CarbohydratesIn non-ruminants;carbohydrate feeds are broken down by chewing into small particles. Then enzymatic action further breaks down carbohydrates into glucose, fructose and galactose which are then assimilated into the bloodstream. In ruminants;mechanical breakdown of carbohydrate feeds is followed by microbial activities which break down cellulose into volatile fatty acids. These are absorbed through the rumen walls.


Then enzymatic action further breaks down carbohydrates into glucose, fructose and galactose which are then assimilated into the bloodstream. In ruminants;mechanical breakdown of carbohydrate feeds is followed by microbial activities which break down cellulose into volatile fatty acids. These are absorbed through the rumen walls. Some carbohydrates are broken down by enzymatic action in the "true stomach" or abomasum. Fats and OilsSources:Cotton seeds,soya beansgroundnuts. Functions:Supply energy and heat to the body. Excess is stored as fat adipose tissues. Source of metabolic water in the body. Required for the development of neural system. Insulator in the body. Digestion of lipids in RuminantsFats are hydrolysed in the rumen into fatty acids and glycerol. Others are fermented into propionic acid,The shorter chains are passed to the true stomach where enzymatic action takes place. VitaminsSources:Green materials,dried grassfish liver oil. Functions:Protects the body against diseases. Regulate the functions of all parts of the body. It acts as a co-enzyme in the body. Examples:Vitamin A,vitamin B2vitamin C,vitamin Evitamin K. MineralsSources:Salt licks,bone meal,legumescereals. Functions:Form part of the tissues such as bones and teeth. Work together with the enzymes. Act as acid -base balances. Act as electrolyte in the body. Regulate osmotic balance in the body. Examples:Calcium,phosphorus,magnesium,iron,iodine,sodiumchlorine. Calcium and phosphorus -Needed for teeth and bone formation. Lack of these minerals leads to rickets, osteomalacia. Lack of iron leads to anaemia. Classification of Animal FeedsThis is based on nutrient composition:Roughages. Concentrates. Feed additives. RoughagesAre feeds of low available nutrients per unit weight and high fibre content. Examples:Dry roughages,succulent roughages,residues from agricultural by products and conserved materials. CharacteristicsLow level of available nutrients. Have high level of calcium especially legumes. Good source of vitamin A. Have high fibre content. ConcentratesAre feeds of high available nutrients per unit weight.


Good source of vitamin A. Have high fibre content. ConcentratesAre feeds of high available nutrients per unit weight. Examples:Maize germ and bran,malt extract,milk products,soyabeans,oil seed cakes,meat meal,bonemealbloodmeal. CharacteristicsLow fibre content. Feed content is consistently high. High digestibility of the feed. High in nutrient content. Feed AdditivesThese are substances added to the feed to increase;palatability,medicationor hormones to make animals produce more. There are two types:Nutritive additives, such as mineral licks maclick . Non-nutritives additives, such as;medicants coccidiostats ,Stilboestrol used in beef animals oxytocin to increase milk let down . FunctionsStimulate growth and production. Improve feed efficiency. Prevent disease causing organisms. Compounded FeedsThese are the feeds prepared and mixed by use of machines. These feeds can be round, pelleted, pencils, cubes or mash. Poultry feeds can be categorized as:Chick mash having 20 D.C.P. given to chicks. Growers mash having 16 D.C.P. given to growers. Layers mash having 12-15 D.C.P. given to layers. Meaning of terms used to express feed valuesNutritive ratio NR :Is the proportion of protein to carbohydrates and fats. In young animals 1:3:6In old animals 1:8. Crude protein C.P : Is the total amount of protein contained in a feed. Digestible Crude Protein D.C.P : Is the portion of crude protein which an animal is capable of digesting. Crude Fibre C.F. :Is the total amount of fibre contained in a feed. It is mainly lignin and cellulose. Digestible Fibre D.F. : Is the portion of the total fibre contained in a feed which an animal is capable of digesting. Dry Matter D.M. : Is the material left in a feed after water has been removed. Starch equivalent S.E. : Is the amount of pure starch which has the same energy as 100kg of that feed. Total Digestible Nutrients T.D.N. : Is the sum of all the digestible organic nutrients such as fats, proteins, carbohydrates and fibre.


Dry Matter D.M. : Is the material left in a feed after water has been removed. Starch equivalent S.E. : Is the amount of pure starch which has the same energy as 100kg of that feed. Total Digestible Nutrients T.D.N. : Is the sum of all the digestible organic nutrients such as fats, proteins, carbohydrates and fibre. Computation of Livestock RationsRation:Is the amount of food that will provide essential nutrients to an animal in a 24 hour periodto enable that animal to meet its maintenance and production requirements. Balanced ration:Is the ration that contains all the essential nutrients in required amounts and in the right proportion. Maintenance ration:is the portion of a feed required by an animal to continue with the vital body processes with no loss or gain in weight. Production ration:Is the feed required by animals over and above maintenance ration to enable the animal to produce;for example; milk, eggs, wool, grow in size, perform work, reproduce and fatten. Steps in ration formulationFinding out the animal's feed requirement based on body weight. List all the available feeds, with their nutrient composition and their prices. Calculate the amount of ingredients required in the ration to meet the animals needs. Methods used in ration formulationTrial and error methodPearson s square methodGraphical methodLinear programming use of computers Examples;Mix a Pigs ration 22 protein using soya bean meal 40 DCP and maize meal containing 8 DCP. Soya bean meal 14 100 43.75kg32Maize meal 18 100 56.25kg32Digestion and digestive systemsDigestion is the process through which food is broken down into small particles in the alimentary canal ready for absorption into the blood stream. Digestion of food in livestock takes place in three stages;Mechanical breakdown and chewingMicrobial breakdown by bacteria and protozoa in the rumen of ruminantsChemical breakdown by enzymes. Rumen-Breakdown of food by micro-organisms and also stores food. Synthesis of vitamin B-complex. Synthesis of amino acids from ammonia gas. Proteins are broken to peptides and amino acids. Carbohydrates are broken to volatile fatty acids. Reticulum:Separates large food particles from the small particles. Retains foreign materials such as stones, hard wood and sand.


Carbohydrates are broken to volatile fatty acids. Reticulum:Separates large food particles from the small particles. Retains foreign materials such as stones, hard wood and sand. Omasum:Breaks up food by grinding. Reduction of water content from the feed stuff. Abomasum:Enzymatic digestion takes place here ..Contains some microbes which digest cellulose. Breaks up food by grinding. It is also found in non-ruminants. Comparison Between Digestion in Ruminant and Non-ruminantsDifferencesFunctions of the Parts of PoultryCrop:Storage of food. Softening of food by secretions from small glands in the walls. Proventriculus: Enzymes start the breakdown of food. Gizzard:-Crushes and grinds the coarse food has small grit and gravel .Comparison Between Digestion In Ruminants and Non-RuminantsSimilarities Between Digestion In Ruminants and Non-RuminantsDigestion in young ruminants is similar to that in non-ruminants as they do not have a developed rumen-reticulum complex. Final protein digestion takes place in the small intestines in both cases. Water absorption takes place in the colon in both ruminants and non ruminants.


FORM ONE AGRICULTURE NOTESINTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTUREThe word Agriculture is derived from two Latin words Ager which means field and cultura that means cultivation. Therefore agriculture can be defined as field cultivation. Livestock are all the domesticated animals. Definition of agriculture:Agriculture is defined as the art and science of crop and livestock production. As an artInvolves use of learned skills and performing them manually by hand . E.g. Tilling of land. Construction of farm structures. Measuring distances. Machine operations. Harvesting of crops. Feeding and handling animals. Marketing of Agricultural produce. As a scienceIt involves experimentation and application of scientific knowledge e.g. in areas such as:Soil science pedology ---study of soil. Crop pathology Study of crop diseases. Entomology--- Study of insects and their control. Agricultural Engineering--- soil and water conservation and farm power. Genetics Plant and animal breeding. Production --- Are activities that increase the quality and quantity of something. Crop production activities include: land preparation, planting, fertilizer and manure application, weeding, pest control, disease control and harvesting. Livestock production activities include:Selection and breeding. Feeding. Rearing the young stock. Parasite and disease control. Housing. Obtaining products from animals. Branches of agricultureCrop production: e.g. Field crop farming, pomology, Floriculture, olericulture.etc. Livestock production: e.g. Apiculture, Poultry keeping, aquaculture.etc. Soil science. Agricultural Economics. Agricultural Engineering. Crop farming or Arable farming: Is the cultivation of crops on cultivated land. E.g. In pure stands monocropping or mixed stands intercropping . Include:Field crops: Are crops grown on large areas of land. Are either Annual crops like cereals and pulses or perennial crops e.g. coffee, tea, sisal, cane etc. Horticultural crops: Are perishable crops and are exported to earn foreign exchange. Include:Floriculture: Growing of flowers e.g. tuber rose, roses, and carnations. Olericulture: Growing of vegetables e.g. French beans, cabbages, tomatoes.etc.. Pomology: Growing of fruits e.g. avocado, mangoes and citrus.


French beans, cabbages, tomatoes.etc.. Pomology: Growing of fruits e.g. avocado, mangoes and citrus. Livestock farming: Include:Pastoralism mammalian livestock farming . Is the rearing of farm animals on pastures. E.g. cattle, goats, pigs, sheep, camels and rabbits. Fish farming Aquaculture ; Is the rearing of fish in fish ponds. Fish is a cheap source of proteins. Bee keeping: Apiculture ; Is the rearing of bees in bee hives. Bees provide ; Honey and Wax, income, Medicine, pollination of flowers.etc. Poultry keeping; Is the rearing of birds for meat and eggs, manure, income. Etc. Include classes of birds such as chicken most common , Ducks, geese, Ostrich, pigeon and Turkeys etc. Agricultural Economics: Deals with utilization of scarce resources i.e. of land, labour, capital and management. It aims at maximizing output while minimizing costs. Agricultural Engineering; Deals with use and maintenance of farm tools and equipment, farm machinery and farm structures. FARMING SYSTEMSA farming system is an organization of the farm and all the enterprises in relation to each other. It can be extensive or intensive. Extensive systemCharacteristicsLarge tracts of land. Low capital investment per unit area. Low labour per unit area. Low yields per unit area. Intensive systemCharacteristicsSmall tracts of land. High capital per unit area. High labour investment per unit area. High yields per unit area. Extensive or intensive farming can be carried out on small or large scale of land. The scale of production depends on:Level of technology. Land availability. Capital availability. Skilled labour available. Large Scale FarmingCharacteristicsLarge tracts of land. Heavy capital investment. Skilled labour and qualified man power. High level of management. It s for commercial purpose. Low operation costs per unit of production since it makes use of economies of scale. Depends on efficient transport. Requires good market system. Most of the work is mechanized. Provides more employment. It includes plantation farming and Ranching. Plantation farming. CharacteristicsLarge tracts of land. Production of only one crop.e.g.


Plantation farming. CharacteristicsLarge tracts of land. Production of only one crop.e.g. Tea plantations in Kiambu and Kericho, Coffee in Kiambu, Sugarcane in Muhoroni, Sisal in Mombasa, Pineapple in Thika. Ranching : Is the keeping of livestock beef animals in marginal range areas. It is an improved pastoral-nomadism because:Animals are enclosed in an area. Diseases are controlled. Pastures are improved. Supplementary feeds and water are provided. Pests and parasites are controlled. There is provision of extension staff. N.B The livestock carrying capacity is low because of limited pasture. Ranching is becoming more and more common in Kenya because of:High meat demand. High population pressure on high potential areas. Arable farming is becoming smaller. Small Scale FarmingCharacteristicsSmall piece of land. Use of improved technology. Production of crops and livestock is spread throughout the year. Goods are produced for subsistence or commercial purpose I,e sale of surplus goods.. Does not require heavy capital investment. AdvantagesLittle capital is required. Source of livelihood to small scale farmers. Methods of FarmingMixed FarmingThis is the growing of crops and rearing of animals on the same farm. AdvantagesIt is a method of diversification whereby should one enterprise fail, the farmer can benefit from the other. There is mutual benefit between the crops and livestock where crops provide feed for livestock and animals provide them with farm yard manure. There is maximum utilization of resources. DisadvantagesLabour intensive. High initial capital required. Farmer s attention is divided. Nomadic PastoralismPastoralism: This is the practice of rearing livestock on natural pastures. Nomadism: This is the practice of moving from one place to another. Pastoral nomadism is therefore the moving of animals from one place to another in search of pasture and water. This is common in the arid and semi-arid areas. Shifting CultivationFarming on a piece of land continuously until it is exhausted after which the farmer moves to a new more fertile land. It is applicable where;Land is abundantPopulation is sparseNumber of livestock per unit area is low. Land is communally owned.


Shifting CultivationFarming on a piece of land continuously until it is exhausted after which the farmer moves to a new more fertile land. It is applicable where;Land is abundantPopulation is sparseNumber of livestock per unit area is low. Land is communally owned. Advantages of shifting cultivationIt has low capital requirementThere is no pests and diseases build-upSoil structure is maintainedNo land disputes as land ownership is not individualized. Disadvantages of shifting cultivationTotal yields per unit are is lowFarmers have no incentive to develop land and conserve water and soilA lot of time is wasted when the farmer is shifting and building structures. Not applicable in areas of high population density or where there is high population increase. Iv AgroforestryAgroforestry - Involves growing of trees and crops and keeping of animals on the same piece of land at the same time. Suitable tree species for agroforestryLeucaena leucocephalaGravillea robustaCalliandra catothrysusMangifera indicaSesbania sesbanLantana camaraCajanus cajanAdvantages of AgroforestrySaves labour since some operations can be done at once for both plants and treesGives higher combined yieldProvide wide variety of agricultural produceReduces the risks of total failureCrops benefit from nitrogen fixing trees. Trees help in holding the soil firmlySome trees act as livestock fodder. Provides a wider variety of agricultural produce. Disadvantages of AgroforestryMechanization is difficult. Use of pesticides and fertilizer may be difficult. Productivity may suffer because the skills for managing the different treesFACTORS INFLUENCING AGRICULTUREHUMAN FACTORS. They are factors in human beings or the way human beings do things. The following is a list of human factors that influence agricultural production. Levels of education and technologyThis is translated as the ability of a producer who is a farmer to apply appropriate methods and techniques in production using available resources for example, Farmer weighing livestock food to ensure efficiencyGood education level makes a farmer able to understand and translate technical language in farming.


They are factors in human beings or the way human beings do things. The following is a list of human factors that influence agricultural production. Levels of education and technologyThis is translated as the ability of a producer who is a farmer to apply appropriate methods and techniques in production using available resources for example, Farmer weighing livestock food to ensure efficiencyGood education level makes a farmer able to understand and translate technical language in farming. Health of the farmersA healthy nation is a productive nationThe following are some of the diseases that contribute to lowering agricultural productivityMalaria,Tuberculosis,Typhoid,Pneumonia and HIV AIDSEffects of HIV AIDS on farmingLoss of skilled labourTime spent caring for the infectedMoney spent on treatmentState of economic developmentThe capital earned from economic activities such as farming is used to raise economic growth in the country. Transport and communication networkGood and efficient infrastructure is important for the smooth flow of farm produce from the farm to the consumer. The improvement of technology in communication has improved farmers access to important information from the research stations and other fellow farmersGovernment policy on agricultural input and produce taxationThe government of Kenya, through different ministries formulates guidelines to be followed by producers of different products. After the guidelines and proposals are legislated they become policiesAvailability of storage facilitiesCultural and religious beliefs. Local and International market forcesHuman Factors which improve productionGood health of the farmerAvailability of moneyHigh taxation on imported agricultural produceAvailability of ready market for agricultural produceAvailability of storage facilitiesLiberalized marketHuman Factors which lower productionRestrictive cultural and religious beliefsPoor road networkBIOTIC FACTORS. These are living organisms that affect agricultural production. Biotic factors influencing agriculture can be divided into the following classes. Crop pests: stalk borer damaging maize in the fieldDecomposers: Cause rotting of organic matter there by releasing nutrients for crop growth. They help in improving soil structure through incorporating organic matter into the soil. Nitrogen fixing Bacteria: Nitrogen fixing bacteria are found in root nodules of leguminous plants. Improve crop production through increasing soil nitrogen content which crops require for proper growth. Livestock parasites: suck blood and transmit diseases to animalsPollinators: Bee pollinating maize flower. Pollination in crop production increases yields and viability of seeds. Predators: Eagles can eat chicken, rabbits among other livestock.


Livestock parasites: suck blood and transmit diseases to animalsPollinators: Bee pollinating maize flower. Pollination in crop production increases yields and viability of seeds. Predators: Eagles can eat chicken, rabbits among other livestock. Eagle can also eat insects and pests for example rats, moles and birds which destroy crops. Pathogens: Causes diseases in livestock and crops thereby lowering quality of produce. Increase cost of production when control measures are implemented. Introduce toxic substances into agricultural products thereby lowering the quality of the produce. Can cause death to crops and animals. Effects of Biotic Factors on Agricultural Production1. PestsFeed on crops thereby lowering quantity of agricultural produce. Feed on grains thereby affecting viability of the seedsAct as disease vectorsLower palatability of crop produceIncrease cost of production when control methods are appliedCreate entry points for disease causing organisms2. ParasitesIrritate livestockCauses anemia in livestockSome block alimentary canalLower rate of production in livestockIncrease cost of production when controlledSome lower quality of hides and skinsSome absorb food meant for the livestock thereby lowering the level of production. Some for example ticks transmit disease causing organisms. CLIMATIC FACTORS. Climatic factors include:RainfallPoor rainfall distribution results to wilting of cropsExcess rainfall can cause soil erosionExcess rainfall can result to crop failure due to flooding. The four aspects of rainfall which affect agricultural production include:-Rainfall AmountRainfall amount refers to quantity of rainfall received in a given area for a period of one year. Rainfall amount is measured using a rain gauge in millimeters per annum. The amount of rainfall determines the crops grown in an area. Rainfall distributionThis refers to the spread of rainfall over the year. Rainfall distribution is very poor in Kenya and therefore irrigation is necessary to supplement the short supply. Rainfall reliabilityThis refers to the certainty with which a given amount of rain is expected in a given place in the year. Rainfall IntensityThis refers to the strength with which rain falls; it is therefore measured in terms of amount per hour. Rainfall of low intensity is preferred as it improves water infiltration into the soil and causes less soil erosion. TemperatureTemperature is the coldness or hotness of a place. Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius using a thermometer. Temperature is influenced by altitude and topography.


TemperatureTemperature is the coldness or hotness of a place. Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius using a thermometer. Temperature is influenced by altitude and topography. Temperature decreases with increase in altitude, such that for every 300 meters rise in altitude above sea level temperature decreases by1.7-2.2 degrees Celsius. Each crop has a temperature range within which it can grow referred to as the cardinal range of temperature. For crops to grow well and produce high yields, they require a narrow temperature range within the cardinal range referred to as optimum range of temperatureEffects of temperature on agricultureLow temperatureSlow growth rate. High incidences of disease such as CDB in coffee. Improvement of quality in crops such as tea and pyrethrum. High temperatureHigh evaporation rate hence wilting in crops. Hasten the rate of maturity due to increased growth rate. Improvement of quality in crops such as pineapples and oranges. Increase incidences of diseases such as leaf rust in coffee. Increased incidences of pest infestation such as aphids in vegetables. Effects of altitude on agricultureKenya is divided into three ecological zones which include;Low altitude zone o - 1500 meters above sea levelMedium altitude zone 1500 - 2500 meters above sea levelHigh altitude zone above 2500 meters above sea levelCrops perform differently when grown in each of these ecological zones and therefore each crop has its most suitable zone for maximum performance as illustrated below. WindWind refers to air in motion. Below is a list of effects of strong wind on agricultural production. Blowing and bringing rain bearing cloudsDestruction of farm structuresStrong wind may course lodging in weak plants. Wind erosion on bare landIncreases rate of moisture evaporationIncrease spread of pests and diseasesAgent of dispersal. Pollination in crops. LightLight is the source of energy which plants require for photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, plants manufacture food using water and carbon dioxide in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Aspects of light that influence agriculturei .Light intensity. This is the strength with which light hits the surface of the earth. Ii Light durationThis is the period of time the plants are exposed to light recorded using a Campbell sunshine recorderPhotoperiodismThis is the response of plants toward light duration. Long day plantsThese are plants which require more than 12 hours of lighting to flower and produce fruits or seeds e.g.


This is the strength with which light hits the surface of the earth. Ii Light durationThis is the period of time the plants are exposed to light recorded using a Campbell sunshine recorderPhotoperiodismThis is the response of plants toward light duration. Long day plantsThese are plants which require more than 12 hours of lighting to flower and produce fruits or seeds e.g. some wheat varietiesShort day plantsThese are plants which require less than 12 hours of lighting to flower and produce e.g MaizeDay neutral plantsThese are plants which produce flowers regardless of the duration of lighting they have been exposed to e.g Tobacco. Iii Light wavelength:This refers to the type or quality of light. A wavelength is the distance between two corresponding points of a light wave. Chlorophyll absorbs certain wavelengths of light which are not present in artificial light unless it is ultra violet or infra red. NB Green houses can be used to control the temperature, relative humidity and light duration and intensity. Relative Humidity. This is the amount of water vapour held by air at a given temperature. At high humidity the rate of evaporation is low and vice versa. EDAPHIC SOIL FACTORSSoil is a mixture of weathered rock and decayed organic matter. It supports plant growth by providing anchorage nutrients and water. Topsoil covers most of the earth and it contains minerals, organic matter, air, water and living organisms. Soil FormationSoil is formed through the process of weathering. Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of the parent rock near the earth s surface. Parent rock is first broken into smaller fragments and eventually into individual constituent minerals. The individual minerals combine to form the soil. Weathering is a continuous process and it takes hundreds of years to form a centimeter of the soil. Weathering involves breakdown disintegration and building up synthesis . Weathering process is influenced by the following factors. Climate. Parent material. Topography. Living organisms. Time. Agents of The Weathering Process. Physical agents. In this case no chemical changes are involved. These include wind, water, moving ice and temperature. Strong winds carry materials which hit against each other and break into smaller fragments. Raindrops hit the ground with some force causing soil erosion. Moving ice causes rocks to disintegrate. High temperatures in the arid areas cause the rocks to at different rates. During the night, temperatures drop making the rock to contract.


Moving ice causes rocks to disintegrate. High temperatures in the arid areas cause the rocks to at different rates. During the night, temperatures drop making the rock to contract. The rock surface contracts faster than the inside. This unequal contraction causes the rocks to disintegrate. In places with very low temperature, water gets into the cracks, freezes and becomes ice. As water turns into ice, it increases in volume pushing the rock apart hence disintegration. Biological agents. This involves living organisms. Large animals like elephants and cattle exert pressure on rocks as they move causing them to break. Mans activities such as mining, quarrying, road construction and earth moving breaks rocks into smaller fragments. Bacteria and fungi help in the breakdown of plant and animal tissues decomposition . These materials are incorporated into the soil. Termites and moles bring to the surface large quantities of fine materials. This promotes weathering by aerating lower layers of the rocks. Roots of plants force their way through rocks making them to disintegrate. They also produce acids during respiration which dissolves rock minerals. Decayed roots may mix with water forming organic acids which dissolves rock minerals. Chemical agents. This is the decay or decomposition of the rocks. It involves the following processes. Carbonation. As the rain falls through the atmosphere, it dissolves some Co2 forming weak carbonic acid. Over time this acid reacts with the rock minerals particularly calcium carbonate causing decomposition. Rain water carbon iv oxide Carbonic acid. Carbonic acid Limestone Calcium bicarbonateThe calcium bicarbonate formed in this reaction is soluble in water causing water to eventually dissolve the entire rock. Oxidation. Oxygen reacts with many elements found in rocks causing them to disintegrate. Solution. Hydrolysis. Hydration. Factors Influencing Soil FormationParent rock materialThis influences the physical and chemical properties of the soil such asThe texture of the soil e.g. granite gives coarse grained soil. Mineral composition of the soil e.g. rocks containing calcite, feldspar and ferro-magnesium minerals produce deep heavy soils rich in nutrients. The rate of soil formation e.g. limestone is easily weathered in warm humid regions and the carbonates are easily soluble. Since the parent material influences the physical and chemical properties of the soil, it therefore controls the type of vegetation in an area. ClimateHigh temperature speed up the rate of chemical reactions.


Limestone is easily weathered in warm humid regions and the carbonates are easily soluble. Since the parent material influences the physical and chemical properties of the soil, it therefore controls the type of vegetation in an area. ClimateHigh temperature speed up the rate of chemical reactions. Wind acts as a transport agent and carries the weathered materials from one place to another. Where a lot of weathered materials are deposited, the soils are deep and rich in nutrients. Rainfall provides water which is an important reagent during the weathering process. A lot of rain may cause rocks to break hastening the weathering process. Topography Relief This is the shape of the land in relation to the underlying rock of the earth s surface. It may quicken or slow the weathering process. The slope affects the depth of the soil and kind of vegetation growing in an area. Soils found in flat land and low lying areas tend to be more fertile than those found on higher slopes. Such areas have deeper soils. On a steep slope, erosion is high and such areas have shallow soils. Living organisms Biotic factors The presence of the various agents of biological weathering speeds up the process of soil formation. Time. The process of soil formation is very slow and takes a lot of time. Deep mature soils are found where soil forming processes have taken place over a long period. If the parent material is resistant to weathering agents, more time is required for the soil to mature. Areas with severe soil erosion have a poorly differentiated soil profile. SOIL PROFILEThis is the vertical arrangement of the soil horizons layers . The horizons show soil layers at different stages of development. Soil forming processes are continuous and the soil develops in depth resulting in the formation of the distinct sequence of soil layers. The layers differ from each other in terms of colour, organic matter content, chemical composition, porosity, depth and the arrangement of soil particles. The horizons are;Superficial layer. It s a thin layer consisting of dead decaying and decayed organic matter covering the soil. Top soil Horizon A . It lies beneath the superficial layer. It contains a lot of humus hence it s darker than the other layers. It s well aerated and contains active living organisms. It s well drained and rich in plant nutrients. Most of the roots are found here. Sub soil Horizon B . Found beneath the top soil. More compacted and less aerated than top soil.


Sub soil Horizon B . Found beneath the top soil. More compacted and less aerated than top soil. May contain an impermeable layer called the hard pan which may prevent drainage and root penetration. Minerals leached from top soil accumulate here hence this layer is referred to as the layer of accumulation. It has clay deposits. Substratum weathered rock Horizon C . Made up of partly weathered rocks. Has no humus. Hard and impermeable to water. Roots of big trees may reach this layer and draw water from it during the dry season. Parent rock Bed rock Horizon D . It s found beneath the weathered rock. Soil is formed from this rock. It may contain ponds of water. NB . Between any two bordering soil layers, there is a transitional zone whereby one layer gradually merges into the next one in the series. The soil profile influences agriculture in the following ways. Topsoil contains most of the soil nutrients, well aerated and has soil microorganisms. A well developed profile holds more moisture for plant use than a shallow one. Loosely packed subsoil allows easy root penetration, drainage and aeration. Nature and composition of the bedrock determines the mineral components of the whole soil. SOIL CONSTITUENTSMineral matter. The mineral composition of the parent rock determines the mineral constituents of the soil. The mineral matter makes the framework of the soil. It holds the roots firmly in the soil giving anchorage to plants. Between the particles are spaces which are filled with water and air. DiagramOrganic matter. When the dead materials rot, they are decomposed by bacteria and fungi to form the soil organic matter. Humus is dead organic matter which is in the state of continuous chemical decomposition, transformation and construction. Humus in the soil improves the soil structure. Humus contains plant nutrients such as sulphates, nitrates, phosphates, calcium, magnesium, potassium etc. Air. The soil contains all the gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, Co2 and the rare gases. Availability of air in the soil is influenced by the type of the soil and amount of water in the soil. Oxygen is needed by plants during respiration. It is also required by microorganisms in the soil during decomposition and nitrogen fixation. Excess Co2 in the soil is poisonous to plants and microorganisms. For best crop performance, a balance of soil water and soil air has to be maintained. Water.


Excess Co2 in the soil is poisonous to plants and microorganisms. For best crop performance, a balance of soil water and soil air has to be maintained. Water. Soil contains water. Soil water exists in three forms;Superfluous water. This is water occupying large air spaces macro pores . This water is loosely held by the soil and therefore easily lost. The water is readily available to plants but not useful because excess water in the soil brings about poor aeration. A lot of water in the soil causes leaching of nutrients. Capillary water. This is water occupying small pores microspores . It is held with grater force by soil particles. It is available to plants and acts as a solvent for plant nutrients. It is also referred to as available water. It leaves most of the macro pores empty allowing aeration of the soil. Hygroscopic water. This is water that forms a thin film around the soil particles. It is firmly held by soil particles making it not available to plants. Clay particles have a lot of hygroscopic water but sandy soils contain very little hygroscopic water because sandy particles have weaker forces. Importance of water to plantsA solvent for plant nutrients. Raw materials for photosynthesis. During transpiration plants lose a lot of water hence a cooling effect on them. Water makes plant cells turgid hence support. Living organisms biotic factors They are important in the soil in the process of decomposition. They are divided into ;Soil microorganismsThey include bacteria, fungi and protozoa. They help in decomposition process. Some bacteria e.g. Rhizobium spp helps in nitrogen fixation in legumes. Some microorganisms are harmful because they cause diseases. Soil macro organismsThey are larger organisms found in the soil such as moles, earthworms, termites, ants and plant roots. They burrow in the soil aerating the soil and making it loose.. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOILSoil structureThis refers to the physical appearance of soil according to how the individual soil particles are arranged, packed or aggregated. The soil structure type is determined by the general shape of the aggregates. Soil structure class is determined by the size of the aggregates. The soil structure grade is determined by the stability or cohesiveness of the aggregates. Types of soil structuresSingle grained structure. There is no aggregation at all. Particles are not cemented together. The particles are non-porous and spherical.


There is no aggregation at all. Particles are not cemented together. The particles are non-porous and spherical. Mostly found in the top soil of sandy soils, arid climates and alkaline soils. Crumby soil structure. The aggregates are small, soft and porous irregular in shape. Aggregates are not closely fitted together. Granular soil structure. The aggregates have irregular shape called granules. Soil is very porous when wet. Structure is found in the topsoil of cultivated soils and in the subsoil of soils under grass or bush. Prismatic soil structure. Aggregate are arranged vertically. The vertical axis of each aggregate is longer than the horizontal axis. When the tops are rounded, they are said to be columnar and when they have flat ends they are prismatic. Platy soil structure. The aggregates are arranged on top of one another in thin horizontal plates. The structure has poor permeability, drainage and root penetration. Structure is mostly found in top horizon of soils in the forest and in clay soils. Blocky soil structure. Aggregates are arranged in rectangular blocks. Aggregates easily fit together along vertical edges. Importance of Soil Structure on Crop ProductionSoil structure influences:Soil aeration. Soil drainage and water holding capacity. Plants root penetrability and anchorage. Microbial activities in the soil. Circulation of gases in the soil. The following farming practices improve the soil structureApplication of inorganic manure into the soil. Tilling the land at the right moisture content. Crop rotation. Minimum tillage. Cover cropping. Mulching. Soil textureIt refers to the relative proportion of the various sizes of the mineral particles of soil. Also defined as the coarseness or fineness of the soil when felt between the fingers. Different soil particles have different sizes as shown below. Determination of Soil TextureThis can be done through;Mechanical analysis. Chemical analysis. Mechanical analysisApparatusGarden soil, sieves of different measured mesh diameter, containers and weighing balance. ProcedurePut a known amount of soil sample into a container. Crush the soil lumps without breaking the particles. Pass the soil through the sieve with the largest mesh diameter 2.00 mm and shake vigorously. Weigh the soil that remains on the sieve and record.


Crush the soil lumps without breaking the particles. Pass the soil through the sieve with the largest mesh diameter 2.00 mm and shake vigorously. Weigh the soil that remains on the sieve and record. Repeat the process using other sieves with mesh diameters of 0.2mm, 0.02mm and 0.002mm always using the soil that passes through the previous sieve. ObservationSoil particles left on first sieve of mesh diameter 2.00mm are called gravel. From the second sieve of 0.20mm; coarse sand particles. From the third sieve 0.02 mm ; fine sand particles. From the fourth sieve 0.002 mm ; silt particles. All the particles that pass through the fourth sieve are clay particles. Importance of soil texture on crop productionInfluences soil fertility. Affects the organic matter content. Influences the drainage of the soil. Influences soil aeration. Influences water holding capacityInfluences the capillarity or movement of water in the soil. NB Based on texture, soil can be classified as;Sandy soil. 50-80 sand, 20-50 silt and clay and 0.1-3 organic matter . Are made up of largely sand particles coarse textured . Have large air spaces hence poor in water retention. Easy to till light soils Low fertility due to leaching of minerals. Easily eroded. Free draining. These soils can be improved by addition of organic matter and fertilizers. Silty loam 20-30 sand, 70-80 silt and clay and 0.1-4 organic matter . Fine texturedWell drainedGood water holding capacity. Moderately fertile and aerated. Area acidic to moderate pH. Clayey loam soils. 20-50 sand, 20-60 silt and clay and 0.1 - 6 organic matter . Poorly drained and aeratedFine texturedHigh capillarity and water holding capacity. Slightly acidic to slightly alkaline. Rich in plant nutrients. Difficult to work on when dry or wet. Are suitable for flood irrigation of crops like rice. Clayey soils. 40 clay content Made up of largely clay particles. Have small pore spaces hence good in moisture retention. Difficult to till heavy soils Poorly drained.


40 clay content Made up of largely clay particles. Have small pore spaces hence good in moisture retention. Difficult to till heavy soils Poorly drained. Expand when wet, crack when dry. High capillarity. Rich in plant nutrients. Are suitable for flood irrigation. They can be improved by drainage. Loamy soils. 30-50 sand, 50-70 silt and clay and 0.1 - 4 organic matter . Moderately textured and drained. Slightly acidic. Do not erode easily. Easy to work on. Have a good water holding capacity. They are the most suitable for crop production since they contain good amounts of plant nutrients and organic matter. They can be improved further by planting cover crops to maintain fertility and by adding manures and fertilizers. Soil ColourThis depends on the mineral composition of the rock and the organic matter content. Soils containing a lot of iron are brownish, yellowish or reddish in colour. Soils with a lot of silica are white. Soils with a lot of humus are dark or grey. Soil colour influences the soil temperature. Dark soils absorb and retain more heat than light coloured soils. Relatively high temperatures in the soil enhance microbial activity. Soil pHThis refers to the acidity or alkalinity of the soil solution. It is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions H or the hydroxyl ions H- in the soils solution. PH is measured using the pH scale which ranges from 1-14. A pH of less than 7 means that the soil solution is acidic. A pH of more than 7 means that the soil is alkaline. PH of 7 is neutral. As the hydroxyl ions in the soil increase, the soil becomes more alkaline and vice versa. Influence of Soil pH on Crop GrowthDetermines the type of crop to grown in a particular area. Affects the type of fertilizer to be used. Affects the availability of some nutrients e.g. at low pH phosphorous and molybdenum are less available while high pH makes manganese, potassium, iron, boron and zinc less available. Very acidic or very alkaline conditions affect activities of soil microorganisms. Modifying Soil pHThe following are applied to the soil in order to lower its pH Increase soil acidity Application of sulphur. Application of acidic fertilizers such as sulphate of ammonia.


Very acidic or very alkaline conditions affect activities of soil microorganisms. Modifying Soil pHThe following are applied to the soil in order to lower its pH Increase soil acidity Application of sulphur. Application of acidic fertilizers such as sulphate of ammonia. In raising its pH increase alkalinity the following is done. Application of lime which is a basic compound which raises the soil pH after some time. Application of basic fertilizers. Agricultural EconomicsAgricultural economics is defined as an applied science that aims at maximizing output while minimizing costs, by combining the limited resources of land, capital, labour and management to produce goods and services for use by the society over a period of time. Basic Economic ConceptsScarcity. The factors of production such as land, capital, labour and management are scarce or limited. The farmer therefore must decide on how to allocate the few scarce resources to the many competing production needs. Preference and ChoiceSince the available resources are limited and production needs are many, a farmer has to make a choice of how to allocate these resources. A farmer therefore has to choose one or several enterprises from very many. The choice made is determined by factors such as needs of the society, farmer s preference and ecological conditions. Opportunity CostSince a choice has to be made from very many competing enterprises, some revenue has to be foregone. For example, a piece of land may be suitable for the production of maize and wheat. If a farmer chooses o grow maize, the returns that the farmer would have obtained from wheat is foregone. The foregone returns are called the opportunity cost. Opportunity cost is the revenue foregone from the best alternative. Farm RecordsThese are documents kept in the farm showing farm activities over a period of time. They should be neat, concise and complete showing actual amounts, weights, measurements or dates. Uses of farm records to a farmerHelp to determine the value of the farm determine assets and liabilities. Provide history of the farm. Assist in planning and budgeting in various fields. Helps to detect losses or theft in the farm. Assists when sharing losses or profits dividends for communal owned farms partnership. Help to settle disputes in the farm among heirs. Help to support insurance claim e.g. against fire and theft. Provide labour information like terminal benefits, NSSF due, Sacco dues for all employees. Help to compare the performance of different enterprises within a farm or other farms.


Against fire and theft. Provide labour information like terminal benefits, NSSF due, Sacco dues for all employees. Help to compare the performance of different enterprises within a farm or other farms. Help in the assessment of income tax to avoid over or under taxation. Records help to show whether the farm business is making profit or losses. This information helps in obtaining credit. Types of Farm RecordsProduction RecordsThey show the total yield and the yield per unit of each enterprise such as the total number of litres of milk from the whole herd and from each cow. Inventory recordsThey show all the assets on the farm e.g. livestock, machinery, buildings, crops etc. They are divided into two;Consumable goods such as animal feeds, fertilizers, fuel, pesticides etc. Permanent goods such as machinery, farm tools and equipment, buildings etc. Consumable Goods InventoryPermanent goods InventoryField Operations RecordsThey show all the activities being carried in the field such as date of ploughing, planting, fertilizer used etc. They help to work out the cost of production for each field at the end of the season. Breeding RecordsThey are kept to show the breeding activities and programmes for various animals on the farm. There are different breeding records depending on the animals being reared. Feeding RecordsThey show the type and amounts of feeds used to feed the animals. Health RecordsThey show the health conditions of the animals. They show when actions such as vaccinations and deworming are to be done. They help in the selection of the breeding stock. They also help in calculating the cost of treatment. Marketing RecordsThey show the commodity, quantity, amount sold, date, rate per unit of the commodity, total value and where sold. Commodity Labour RecordsThey show the type of labour, date of employment, rate of payment, skilled and unskilled labour. They are divided into two;Muster Roll this checks the number of days worked for and therefore determine how much to be paid to a worker. This record shows the name of the worker, payroll number, days worked for, rate of payment, the amount of salary and signature. Muster Roll-Labour Utilisation Analysis. They show how labour is utilized on the farm and helps to determine labour allocation; labour requirement for the purpose of budgeting when labour is in peak demand or when to lay off unproductive labour.


This record shows the name of the worker, payroll number, days worked for, rate of payment, the amount of salary and signature. Muster Roll-Labour Utilisation Analysis. They show how labour is utilized on the farm and helps to determine labour allocation; labour requirement for the purpose of budgeting when labour is in peak demand or when to lay off unproductive labour. CROP PRODUCTION 1LAND PREPARATIONLand preparation involves all the activities that make land suitable for planting such as ploughing digging-harrowing-ridging-rolling etcA piece of land that has been prepared for planting is called seedbed. In a seedbed the planting materials germinate and grow to maturity and are harvested from same place. IMPORTANCE OF LAND PREPARATION-To kill the weeds. -Encourage water infiltration into the soil. -To aerate the soil. -Incorporate manure and other organic matter into the soil. -To destroy stages of crop pests such as eggs, larvae, pupa or adults burying them, exposing them to the suns heat or predators and starving them. -To encourage root penetration into the soil. -To make subsequent operations possible e.g. planting, fertilizer application, rolling and ridging. OPERATIONS IN LAND PREPARATIONSThey include;Land clearing. Primary cultivation. Secondary cultivation. Tertiary operations. LAND CLEARINGThis is the removal of vegetation cover from the surface before tillage. This is done to prepare land for cultivation and as method of land reclamation. Land clearing is necessary under the following conditions. When opening up a virgin land. Where a stalk growing crop was previously planted such as maize. Where land was left fallow for long time. Where the interval between primary and secondary cultivation is long such that the land has reverted to the original virgin state. Methods of Land ClearingTree felling. Axes, pangas and power saws are used to cut down trees. Bulldozers and root rakers are used in felling trees on a large scale. Removal of stumps and trash later follows. Burning. The vegetation cover is set ablaze. The method should be discouraged as it destroys the soil organic matter, soil micro organisms and plant nutrients. Slashing. This is done to cut small bushes and grasses using slashers, pangas or tractor drawn mowers. Use of chemicals. Chemicals used to kill weeds are called herbicides.


This is done to cut small bushes and grasses using slashers, pangas or tractor drawn mowers. Use of chemicals. Chemicals used to kill weeds are called herbicides. Primary CultivationThis follows land clearing,Small scale farmers use jembes or fork jembes during hand digging. In Large scale framing ploughing is done using mouldboard or disc plough. Other farmers use ox ploughs. Primary cultivation should be done before the onset of the rains. This ensures that all other subsequent operations are done in good time. Importance of Primary CultivationTo remove weeds. To bury organic matter for easy decomposition. To facilitate water infiltration and aeration. To destroy soil borne pests by exposing them to predators and the sun. To make planting easy. Methods of Primary CultivationHand digging. This is done by use of jembes, mattocks and fork jembes to cut and turn the soil slices. Mechanical cultivation. This is the use of tractor drawn implements such as mouldboard and disc ploughs. Subsoilers, cultivators and chisel ploughs are used to break the hard pan. Subsoiling is the process of cultivating the soil with the purpose of breaking up the hard pan. Hard pans may be formed due to continuous use of heavy machinery on the land. Importance of subsoilingBreaking up the hard pan hence improving drainage. Improving soil aeration. Bringing to the surface leached minerals. Improve root penetration. Use of an oxplough. This is the use of ploughs drawn by oxen, donkeys or camels. The method is faster and more efficient than hand cultivation. It s common in areas where land is fairly flat. The following aspects should be considered when carrying out primary cultivation. Time of CultivationLand should be prepared before the onset of the rains so as to;Give enough time for the weeds to dry up and decompose into organic matter. To allow CO2 and other gases to diffuse out of the soil while being replaced by oxygen. Give enough time for subsequent operations to be done hence giving way to early planting. Depth of CultivationThis is determined by;Type of crop to be planted. Shallow rooted crops do not deep cultivation. Deep rooted crops require deep cultivation. Type of the soil. Heavy soils are hard when dry making jembes and fork-jembes to dig shallowly. The implements available. Tractor drawn implements give deeper depth than hand operated tools.


Heavy soils are hard when dry making jembes and fork-jembes to dig shallowly. The implements available. Tractor drawn implements give deeper depth than hand operated tools. Choice of the Correct ImplementsThis is determined by:Condition of the land. If the land has a lot of stones and stumps, a disc plough is preferred because it rolls over the obstacles without braking. Type of the tilth required. Very fine tilth requires different types of implements. Depth of cultivation. When deep cultivation is required heavy implements are used. Light implements are used when shallow cultivation is needed. Topography of the land. Tractor drawn implements cannot be used where the slope is very steep. Implements available. A farmer can only use what is locally available. Shape of the land. Some land shapes may not allow tractor drawn implements to be used efficiently e.g. where there are acute corners. Size of the land. Secondary CultivationThis follows primary tillage. This involves the refinement of the seedbed before planting. It is also referred to as harrowing. Small scale farmers can use pangas, jembes, fork-jembes, and garden rakes to break the soil clods and pulverize the soil. Large scale farmers use factors drawn harrows such as disc harrows, spike toothed harrows, spring tine harrows. IMPORTANCE OF SECONDARY CULTIVATIONTo remove any weeds that might have germinated immediately after primary cultivation. To break the soil clods into small pieces for easy planting. To level the field so as to obtain the uniform depth of planting. Incorporate organic matter into the soil in order to encourage decomposition before planting. Factors determining the number of times secondary cultivation is done. Size of the planting materials. Small seeds require a fine tilth than large seeds. Slope of the land. If the land is hilly, less number of secondary cultivations are preferred to discourage soil erosion. Moisture content of the soil. In dry soils less operations are preferred so as to conserve the soil moisture. Condition of the land after primary cultivation. If after primary cultivation, a lot of trash is left, more harrowing operations should be carried out so as to incorporate the trash into the soil. Tertiary OperationsThey are carried out to meet the needs of certain crops. They are conducted after land clearing, primary and secondary cultivations.


If after primary cultivation, a lot of trash is left, more harrowing operations should be carried out so as to incorporate the trash into the soil. Tertiary OperationsThey are carried out to meet the needs of certain crops. They are conducted after land clearing, primary and secondary cultivations. They include;RidgingThis is the process of digging soil in a continuous line and heaping it on one side to form a ridge bund and a furrow. These ridges are used in planting crops such as Irish potatoes, cassava, groundnuts etc. Ridges facilitate tuber expansion and easy harvesting of the root crops. Furrows are made when planting sugarcane. They help to conserve soil and water. RollingThis is done to compact the soil which is loose or of fine tilth. This is done to prevent small seeds from being blown away by the wind and to prevent soil erosion. This also increase seed soil contact. Heavy rollers are used in large scale. LevelingThis is making the soil surface flat and uniform to promote easy germination of small seeded crops. Rolling ensures uniform germination of seeds. MINIMUM TILLAGEThis is the use of a combination of farming practices that disturb soil the least. These farming practices include;Application of herbicides in controlling weeds. Timing cultivation timely weeding of the previous crop. Mulching. Mulch prevents weeds from growing. Restricting cultivation to the area where seeds are to be planted. Weeds in the rest of the field are controlled by slashing. Establishing a cover crop on the field. Uprooting or slashing weeds in perennial crops. Reasons for carrying out minimum tillageReduce the cost of cultivation. By reducing the number of operations. To control soil erosion. To maintain soil structure. To conserve soil moisture. Continuous cultivation exposes the soil to sun s heat hence evaporation of soil moisture. To prevent root and underground structures disturbance. To prevent exposure of humus to adverse conditions such as sun s heat that cause volatilization of nitrogenSoil Fertility I: Organic Manures Soil Fertility: This is the ability of the soil to provide the crops with the required nutrients in proper proportions for high production. Characteristics of Fertile SoilsGood Depth: Deep soil gives plants greater volume to obtain nutrients and also provide anchorage. Good water holding capacity: This ensures that water is retained well for plant use.


To prevent exposure of humus to adverse conditions such as sun s heat that cause volatilization of nitrogenSoil Fertility I: Organic Manures Soil Fertility: This is the ability of the soil to provide the crops with the required nutrients in proper proportions for high production. Characteristics of Fertile SoilsGood Depth: Deep soil gives plants greater volume to obtain nutrients and also provide anchorage. Good water holding capacity: This ensures that water is retained well for plant use. Proper drainage: Well drained soils are well aerated facilitating healthy root development. Correct soil pH. Different crops have different nutrient requirements. Adequate nutrient supply. It should supply the crops with the nutrients they require in adequate amounts. Free from excessive infestation of soil borne pests and diseases. How Soil Loses FertilityLeaching. Soluble minerals are carried to lower horizons beyond the reach of plant roots. Mono cropping. Growing one type of crop continuously for a long time leads to the exhaustion of certain minerals that the plant uses. Change of soil pH. Changes in the soil pH affect the activity of the soil microorganisms and the availability of certain soil nutrients. Use of some fertilizers can change the soil pH. Continuous cropping. Crops take up a lot of nutrients during their growth which are never returned to the soil. This makes the soil deficient of these plant nutrients. Burning of vegetation cover. This destroys the organic matter hence destruction of the soil structure. Soil erosion. When the fertile top soil is carried away, the soil loses its fertility. Accumulation of salts. This is as result of irregular rainfall and insufficient removal of salts from the soil especially in the arid and semi arid areas. Accumulation of salts is called salinisationMaintenance of Soil FertilityControl of soil erosion to enhance soil infiltration onto the soil and reduce surface run off. Weed control to prevent competition for nutrients. Water space and light with crops. It also reduces pests and diseases. Carrying out crop rotation, this helps to control accumulation of crop pests and diseases on the farm. It also helps to ensure maximum utilization of nutrients. Use of inorganic fertilizers helps to add nutrients to the soil e.g. CAN, DAP, Urea etc.. Use of organic manure helps to supply organic matter to the soil. Minimum tillage which helps to maintain soil structure and prevent soil erosion.


CAN, DAP, Urea etc.. Use of organic manure helps to supply organic matter to the soil. Minimum tillage which helps to maintain soil structure and prevent soil erosion. Intercropping Mixed cropping of leguminous and non- leguminous crops fix nutrients and improve fertility. Proper drainage by breaking hard pans or creation of water channels this ensures proper aeration. Control of pH to almost neutral to ensure proper functioning of micro-organisms which help in decomposition of organic matter. Organic ManuresThey are obtained from plant and an animal remains after decomposition. Role Importance of Organic MatterImproves soil structure aeration, drainage absorption and retention. Improve water holding capacity of the soil. Increases soil fertility e.g. carbon nitrogen etc. It provides food and shelter to soil microorganisms. Help to keep PH of soil stable Buffers soil pH . Reduces toxicity of plant poisons that have build up in the soil as a result of continuous use of pesticides and fungicides etc. Humus gives soil dark appearance making the soil to absorb heat. This moderates soil temperature. Problems Associated with the use of Organic ManuresBulkiness they have low nutritive value per unit volume hence required in large volumes. Laborious in application and transportation this is due to their bulkiness. They spread diseases, pests and weeds i.e. if they are made from materials that are contaminated. Losses of Nutrients if they are poorly stored, soluble nutrients are easily leached and some become volatilized when exposed to the hot sun. If used when not fully decomposed the plant does not benefit from them. Types of Organic ManuresThey are of three types:Green Manure. Farm Yard Manure FYM Compost Manure. Green ManureIt is made of green plants which are left to grow until flowering and then are incorporated into the soil through ploughing. The crops used include; cowpeas, groundnuts, Lucerne, beans, sunflower etc. Characteristics of Plants used as Green ManureShould be leafy or highly vegetative. Should have high nitrogen content hence leguminous ones are preferred. Should have a fast growth. Must be capable of rotting quickly. Should be hardy i.e. Capable of growing in poor conditions.


Must be capable of rotting quickly. Should be hardy i.e. Capable of growing in poor conditions. Reasons Why Green Manure is not Commonly UsedMost crops used for green manure are food cropsTakes time for the manure to decompose delaying plantingMost of the nutrients are used up by micro-organisms in the process of decomposing the green manureGreen manure might use most of the soil moisture and leave very little for the next cropFarm Yard Manure FYM This is mixture of animal waste urine and dung and crop remains used as animal beddings. The quality of Farm Yard Manure is determined by the following factors. Type of the animal used Dung from fattening animals has a high level of nutrients than that from a dairy cow. Non ruminants such as hens and pigs give very rich dung in terms of nutrients. Type of food eaten - nutritious feedstuffs give manure with more nutrients. Type of litter used wood shavings and sawdust are slow to decompose and contain very little nutrients as compared to leguminous ones which give manure rich in nutrients. Method of storage for manure to retain its nutritive status, it must be stored in place with a leak proof roof and a concrete floor. Age of the farm yard manure well rotten manure is rich in nutrients and is easy to apply. Preparation of the farm Yard ManureProvide materials such as grass or wood shavings in the animal house to serve as bedding. Animals deposit their droppings and urine on the bedding and mix them by trampling. After some time Collect the used animal bedding litter and other rotten plant residues;Store collected materials under roof shed to prevent leaching and oxidization of nutrients;Turnover the materials regularly;Sprinkle water if dry;Leave the material to rot completely before useCompost ManureThis is a type of manure made from decomposed materials such as kitchen refuse, plant and animal remains. The following factors are considered when selecting the site for making compost manure. Well drained place this avoids waterlogging which may cause leaching of nutrients. Direction the prevailing wind this aims at preventing bad smells from being blown to the homestead. Size of the Farm the site should be centrally placed on the farm. Accessibility this makes transportation of the manure possible.


Direction the prevailing wind this aims at preventing bad smells from being blown to the homestead. Size of the Farm the site should be centrally placed on the farm. Accessibility this makes transportation of the manure possible. Preparation of Compost ManureThere are two methods of preparing compost manure;Indore Method pit Method Four Heap System Stack Method . Indore Method pit Method A pit 1.2m long by 1.2m wide and 1.2m deep is made. Te materials to be composted are placed in layers in the following order;Fibrous materials such as maize stalks form the foundation. They are followed by a layer of grass, leaves or any kitchen refuse material. A layer of well rotten manure is then applied to provide nutrients for the microorganisms. A thin layer of wood ash is applied to improve the level of phosphorous and potassium in the manure. A layer of top soil is then added to introduce microorganisms that are required to decompose the organic materials.. The above sequence of layers is repeated until the pit is full. A layer of soil is added to cover the pit. During the dry season, the materials should be kept moist by adding water. Five pits are dug in series and materials filled as follows:Pits I, II, III and IV are filled with the materials as described above. After 3-4 weeks, the materials in pit IV are transferred to pit V, materials in pit III to IV, in pit II to pit III and in pit I to pit II. Process is repeated until the materials are well rotten then taken to the filed as compost manure. Four Heap System Stack Method In this method four heaps are used. The materials used are similar to those used in the pit method. ConstructionVegetation is cleared from the ground. Posts 2m high are fixed at a spacing of 1.2 by 1.2m forming the corners of the heap. Wood planks are fixed on the sides to form the walls and materials are arranged as in the Indore method. Materials are placed in the heaps labeled X and after 3-4 weeks they are transferred to pit Y. After another 3-4 weeks, the compost materials are transferred to pit Z where they stay for some 3-4 weeks before they become ready to be taken to the field. The manure should be turned occasionally to facilitate air circulation.


Materials are placed in the heaps labeled X and after 3-4 weeks they are transferred to pit Y. After another 3-4 weeks, the compost materials are transferred to pit Z where they stay for some 3-4 weeks before they become ready to be taken to the field. The manure should be turned occasionally to facilitate air circulation. A stick is driven into the stack an angle to check the temperature. If the temperature inside is high, it is corrected by adding water. DiagramsWATER SUPPLY, IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGEWATER SUPPLYThe Hydrological CycleWater from the surface evaporates up the atmosphere, cools and condenses to form clouds. Saturated clouds fall down to the earth as precipitation in form of rain. This water returns back to the atmospheres through the process of evapo-transpiration. The circulation of water from the earth s surface to the atmosphere and back again is called theHydrological CycleSources of WaterThey include; surface water sources, underground water sources and rain. Surface water sourcesThey include;Rivers, streams and dams. LakesUnderground water sourcesThey include:Springs. Wells. Boreholes. Assignment. Make short notes on the various sources of surface and underground water. Rain water. This is collected from rooftops and stored in tanks. Ponds cal also be dug to collect the runoff. Rain water is very pure compared to the other sources. Water Collection and StorageDams. A dam is a barrier constructed to store water. Dams can be made of earth or concrete. Grass should be planted on the embankment to prevent soil erosion. Weirs. Weirs are used to raise the water level in a river to facilitate pumping. Water tanks. These are made of concrete, stone, metal sheets, plastic or rubber. They should be covered to prevent water contamination. Pumps and Pumping of WaterPumping is the lifting of water from one point to another by use of mechanical force. Types of water pumpsCentrifugal rotardynamic pumps. Piston reciprocating pumps. Semi-rotary pumps. Hydram. Conveyance of WaterThis is the process of moving water from one point source or storage point to where it will be used or stored. This can be done through;PipingIn this case water moves through pipes.


Hydram. Conveyance of WaterThis is the process of moving water from one point source or storage point to where it will be used or stored. This can be done through;PipingIn this case water moves through pipes. Types and choices of pipesMetal pipesThese are expensive but durable. They also can withstand high pressure. Plastic pipesThey are cheap and easy to install. However they can burst under high water pressure, can break when exposed to the sun and can be gnawed by rodents such as moles. Hose pipesThey are either made of rubber or plastic. Rubber ones are more expensive and more durable than the plastic ones. Use of containersContainers such as jerry cans, drums and pots are used to draw water and are carried by various means such as bicycles and animals. Use of canalsWater is conveyed from a high point to a lower point along a slope especially for irrigation purposes. General Uses of Water on the FarmDomestic use cooking, drinking, washingCooling animalsRearing fishWatering irrigation plantsCleaning calf pens, milking shedsWatering livestock drinkingDiluting dissolving chemical used to control pests, parasites and weedsMixing concrete in constructionCooling and running machine enginesProcessing farm produce eg coffee hides, carrotsRecreation eg swimming poolsWATER TREATMENTImportance of Water TreatmentKill disease causing microorganisms. Remove chemical impurities such as excess fluoride. Remove bad smells and bad tastes. Remove sediments of solid particles such as soil and sand. Process of Water TreatmentStage I: Filtration of water intake. -. Water from Source River is made to pass through a series of sieves. -. Large particles of impurities are trapped by the sieves. -. Water then enters into the large pipe to be directed to the mixing chamber. Stage II:Softening of the waterWater circulates in the mixing chamber and doses of soda ash to soften the water. Stage III:Coagulation and sedimentationWater is passed through coagulation tank where fresh air enters to remove bad smell chloride of lime used. Water stays for 36 hours thus solid particles settle and bilharzias causing organisms killed. Alum is added to coagulate solid particles which settle at the bottom. Stage IV:FiltrationWater is passed through filtration tank with layers of sand and gravel to filter it.