11. Install Expansion cards: Expansion cards help to increase the functionality of your computer. You can place Expansion cards on the motherboard. Fig: Install Expansion Cards PCI compatible expansion cards can place on the PCI slots of the motherboard. PCI-e compatible expansion cards can place on the PCI-e slots of the motherboard. Video cards or graphics cards can place on the AGP slot of the motherboard. You must know about various parts of a motherboard such that, you can effortlessly identify the different connectors. 12. Install Sys Rear cooling fan: Cooling FansFind the location where you can place the Sys Rear cooling Fan. Generally, SYS Rear cooling can place below the SMPS. Fig: Cooling fans 13. Bus cable connection: Amazingly, bus cable or data cable connections are prime connections. Bus cable helps to share information or data between the storage device and motherboard. Sata-pata bus and connector If your motherboard has a SATA Bus connector, then you need to use SATA cables. AND if your motherboard has a PATA Bus connector, then you can use PATA cable or IDE cable. In general, two bus cables need to connect inside the CPU. First, Bus cable connects the HDD and motherboard. And the second Bus cable connects the CD DVD drive and motherboard. 14. Power Cable connection: Fig: Cable connection This one is the final step of assembling a CPU. You need to provide power to the different parts of the CPU. Plug the ATX power connector from your power supply into the matching port on your motherboard. 1. You can find a 20 24 pins ATX power connector port on the motherboard. The 20 24 pins ATX power connector cable coming from SMPS needs to connect here. Check the lock system in both ends of the connector and the port, and place it properly. As always, refer to your motherboard s manual for the exact locations. 2. There is another 4-pins ATX power connector port, you can find on the motherboard. You can locate this port near the processor socket. You must connect the 4-pins power connector in this port properly. 15. Front Panel connector connection: Use your motherboard user manual and find the description of front-panel connectors. First, attach each of the tiny leads from the power and reset switches. After that, the hard-disk activity lights, the PC speaker, and any front-panel USB to the corresponding pin on your motherboard. Part2: How to assemble PC This one is the final part of assembling a computer system.


First, attach each of the tiny leads from the power and reset switches. After that, the hard-disk activity lights, the PC speaker, and any front-panel USB to the corresponding pin on your motherboard. Part2: How to assemble PC This one is the final part of assembling a computer system. 1. Check your keyboard connector port. If it is a USB connector, then connect your keyboard into the proper USB port. And if it is a PS 2 connector, then connect to the correct, PS 2 port. 2. Same steps you need to follow to connect your mouse into the proper port. 3. You require a VGA Video Graphic Array cable to connect the monitor and CPU. Find the 15 pins male connector on the backside of the CPU cabinet and your monitor. Use the VGA cable to connect the CPU cabinet and the monitor. Finally, you need to tighten the lock screws. 4. If you have a speaker, you can connect the speaker on the backside of your CPU cabinet. To get sound from the speaker, you need to plug the speaker s cable with the Aux port. 5. And if you have a printer, you can connect the printer on the backside of your CPU cabinet. These days, you can connect your speaker BUS cable on the USB port. Finally, connects power to the various parts of your computer. You have to connect the power cable with the CPU case, monitor, speaker, and printer. Check your PC Set-Up: It is time to turn on your system and check your PC set up. Make sure the keyboard, mouse, and monitor are all plugged into the appropriate ports on the back of the PC. Plug the power cord back in, and turn the machine on. To boot a computer you need hardware and software. Till now you have understood to assemble a computer. If you want to work on that computer you need to install an Operating System. If you do not know how to install an operating system on a computer, check the following two articles: Disassembling a PC? Disassembling a PC means disconnecting the different components of a PC. Steps for disassembling a PC Generally, people want to know both assemble and disassemble steps of a computer. Therefore I am sharing my ideas to help you to assemble and disassemble a computer system. 1. Unplugged the AC power supply to the PC from the wall socket 2. Remove the Cover or chassis or case. 3.


Unplugged the AC power supply to the PC from the wall socket 2. Remove the Cover or chassis or case. 3. Unplugged bus cables and ATX power cables 4. Remove Adapter Cards if any 5. Now Remove the processor and the heat sink and fan 6. Remove hard disk and CD DVD drives 7. Next, remove the Memory Modules 8. Remove the Power Supply SMPS 9. Finally, Remove the Motherboard1. Unplugged the AC power supply to the PC from the wall socket This one is the first step to begin a PC disassemble process. Always remember first disconnect all the power supply connected to your computer system before starting to remove parts. 2. Remove the case covering Loose the screws and remove the case covering to access the inside parts of the CPU cabinet case. 3. Unplugged bus cables and ATX power cables Disconnect all the cables one by one inside the CPU case. First, disconnect ATX power cables from the motherboard. After that, disconnect power supply cables, bus cables from the HDD SSD, and motherboard. 4. Remove adapter cards if any If any adapter is connected then, disconnect the card from the motherboard. 5. Remove the processor and the heat sink and fan Now its time to remove the heat sink from the motherboard. Generally, the CPU fan and the heat sink attach together. If it is separated in that case, you need to remove the fan first after that, you can remove the CPU heat sink. In the final step, unlock the processor socket and remove the processor from the motherboard carefully. 6. Remove hard disk and CD DVD drives Its time to remove the other parts of the computer system. Remove the Hard disk drive or SSD from the motherboard. You can also remove the CD DVD drive from the CPU case. Sometimes, to remove CD DVD drive from the CPU case, you need to remove the front cover of the CPU cabinet case first. After that, you can remove the ROM drives. 7. Remove memory modules In this process, you do remove the RAM from the motherboard. First, unlock the RAM from both ends and pull the RAM carefully. 8. Remove the Power Supply Unit PSU Already you know, SMPS supplies power to the various parts of the computer system. Here you need to remove the SMPS from the CPU cabinet case. 9. Remove the motherboard The final step of the PC disassemble process is this one.


Here you need to remove the SMPS from the CPU cabinet case. 9. Remove the motherboard The final step of the PC disassemble process is this one. Carefully remove the motherboard from the CPU cabinet case. Note: Remember, bolts or screws are the very essential things. They help to make rigid, all the parts used inside the computer. To remove any part from the computer system mostly, you need to take out bolts first. Here in PC disassemble steps, I have ignored that portion. Conclusion Assembling and disassembling a computer system is not a difficult task but requires keen observation and knowledge of the different components of thesystem. You need to be extra careful when fitting in these components and make sure that they are not fitted forcefully but firmly. In case of hardware failure or to install new add-on cards, you need to have good knowledge to assemble and disassemble a computer system Major parts of a computer case https: www.youtube.com watch?v HB4I2CgkcCo Inside a computer Have you ever looked inside a computer case, or seen pictures of the inside of one? The small parts may look complicated, but the inside of a computer case isn't really all that mysterious. This lesson will help you master some of the basic terminology and understand a bit more about what goes on inside a computer. Motherboard The motherboard is the computer's main circuit board. It's a thin plate that holds the CPU, memory, connectors for the hard drive and optical drives, expansion cards to control the video and audio, and connections to your computer's ports such as USB ports . The motherboard connects directly or indirectly to every part of the computer. CPU processor The central processing unit CPU , also called a processor, is located inside the computer case on the motherboard. It is sometimes called the brain of the computer, and its job is to carry out commands. Whenever you press a key, click the mouse, or start an application, you're sending instructions to the CPU. The CPU is usually a two-inch ceramic square with a silicon chip located inside. The chip is usually about the size of a thumbnail. The CPU fits into the motherboard's CPU socket, which is covered by the heat sink, an object that absorbs heat from the CPU. A processor's speed is measured in megahertz MHz , or millions of instructions per second; and gigahertz GHz , or billions of instructions per second. A faster processor can execute instructions more quickly.


The CPU fits into the motherboard's CPU socket, which is covered by the heat sink, an object that absorbs heat from the CPU. A processor's speed is measured in megahertz MHz , or millions of instructions per second; and gigahertz GHz , or billions of instructions per second. A faster processor can execute instructions more quickly. However, the actual speed of the computer depends on the speed of many different components not just the processor. RAM random access memory RAM is your system's short-term memory. Whenever your computer performs calculations, it temporarily stores the data in the RAM until it is needed. This short-term memory disappears when the computer is turned off. If you're working on a document, spreadsheet, or other type of file, you'll need to save it to avoid losing it. When you save a file, the data is written to the hard drive, which acts as long-term storage. RAM is measured in megabytes MB or gigabytes GB . The more RAM you have, the more things your computer can do at the same time. If you don't have enough RAM, you may notice that your computer is sluggish whenyou have several programs open. Because of this, many people add extra RAM to their computers to improve performance. Hard drive The hard drive is where your software, documents, and other files are stored. The hard drive is long-term storage, which means the data is still saved even if you turn the computer off or unplug it. When you run a program or open a file, the computer copies some of the data from the hard drive onto the RAM. When you save a file, the data is copied back to the hard drive. The faster the hard drive, the faster your computer can start up and load programs. Power supply unit The power supply unit in a computer converts the power from the wall outlet to the type of power needed by the computer. It sends power through cables to the motherboard and other components. If you decide to open the computer case and take a look, make sure to unplug the computer first. Before touching the inside of the computer, you should touch a grounded metal object or a metal part of the computer casing to discharge any static buildup. Static electricity can be transmitted through the computer circuits, which can seriously damage your machine. Expansion cards Most computers have expansion slots on the motherboard that allow you to add various types of expansion cards. These are sometimes called PCI peripheral component interconnect cards.


Static electricity can be transmitted through the computer circuits, which can seriously damage your machine. Expansion cards Most computers have expansion slots on the motherboard that allow you to add various types of expansion cards. These are sometimes called PCI peripheral component interconnect cards. You may never need to add any PCI cards because most motherboards have built-in video, sound, network, and other capabilities. However, if you want to boost the performance of your computer or update the capabilities of an older computer, you can always add one or more cards. Below are some of the most common types of expansion cards. Video card The video card is responsible for what you see on the monitor. Most computers have a GPU graphics processing unit built into the motherboard instead of having a separate video card. If you like playing graphics-intensive games, you can add a faster video card to one of the expansion slots to get better performance. Sound card The sound card also called an audio card is responsible for what you hear in the speakers or headphones. Most motherboards have integrated sound, but you can upgrade to a dedicated sound card for higher-quality sound. Network card The network card allows your computer to communicate over a network and access the Internet. It can either connect with an Ethernet cable or through a wireless connection often called Wi-Fi . Many motherboards have built-in network connections, and a network card can also be added to an expansion slot. Bluetooth card or adapter Bluetooth is a technology for wireless communication over short distances. It's often used in computers to communicate with wireless keyboards, mice, and printers. It's commonly built into the motherboard or included in a wireless network card. For computers that don't have Bluetooth, you can purchase a USB adapter, often called a dongleTHE MOTHERBOARD Power supplyfor CPUfan24pins ATMountingPete xt PetesMotherboard Definition of the Motherboard A motherboard is the main circuit board inside a computer that connects the different parts of a computer together. It has sockets for the CPU, RAM and expansion cards and it also hooks up to hard drives, disc drives and front panel ports with cables and wires. Motherboard is also known as a mainboard, planar board or logic board, system board, mobo or MB. It links all the individual parts of a computer together and also, allows the CPU to access and control these separate parts. Other than bridging internal components, the motherboard ports also allows you to connect external devices to the computer.


Motherboard is also known as a mainboard, planar board or logic board, system board, mobo or MB. It links all the individual parts of a computer together and also, allows the CPU to access and control these separate parts. Other than bridging internal components, the motherboard ports also allows you to connect external devices to the computer. Such external devices would include the monitor, speakers, headphones, microphone, keyboard, mouse, modem and other USB devices. Functions of the Motherboard The functions of a computer motherboard are as follows: i. The motherboard acts as the central backbone of a computer on which other modular parts are installed such as the CPU, RAM and hard disks. Ii. The motherboard also acts as the platform on which various expansion slots are available to install other devices interfaces. Iii. The motherboard is also responsible to distribute power to the various components of the computer. Iv. They are also used in the coordination of the various devices in the computer and maintain an interface among them. V. Some of the Sizes in which the motherboards are available are : BTX, ATX, mini-ATX, micro-ATX, LPX, NLX etc.. Types of Motherboards A computer s motherboard is typically the largest printed circuit board in a machine s chassis. It distributes electricity and facilitates communication between and to the central processing unit CPU , random access memory RAM , and any other component of the computer s hardware. There is a broad range of motherboards, each of which is intended to be compatible with a specific model and size of the computer. To comprehend what motherboards are and what they do, we must first examine their various types and specifications. 1. Advanced Technology AT motherboard Due to their larger physical dimensions which can be measured in hundredths of millimeters , these motherboards do not work properly with computers that fall into the category of smaller desktops. A larger physical size makes it more difficult to install new hardware drivers. The power connections on these motherboards are in the form of sockets and plugs with six prongs each. Due to the difficulty in recognizing these power connections, users often have issues while trying to connect and operate them. In the 1980s, motherboards of this sort were all the rage, and they continued to be manufactured far into the 2000s. 2. Standard ATX motherboard ATX is an enhanced version of the AT motherboard that Intel created in the 1990s.


In the 1980s, motherboards of this sort were all the rage, and they continued to be manufactured far into the 2000s. 2. Standard ATX motherboard ATX is an enhanced version of the AT motherboard that Intel created in the 1990s. Its name means advanced technology extended, and its initials stand for advanced technology. Unlike AT, it is much more compact and enables the associated components to be interchanged. The connection elements have witnessed significant progress and development. 3. Micro ATX motherboardThe length and width of these motherboards, measured in millimeters, are also 244 mm size metrics will differ as per the manufacturer . This motherboard has fewer ports and slots than the Standard ATX board. Users who do not want excessive connections and subsequent upgrades, like adding more RAM, an extra GPU, or other Peripheral Component Interconnect PCI cards, are better suited for this kind of motherboard than others. This motherboard may be installed in any case with enough space to accommodate 244 mm by 244 mm. It can also be installed in larger cases that are compatible with Standard ATX or eXTENDED ATX motherboards. 4. Extended ATX motherboard The dimensions of this motherboard are 344 millimeters by 330 millimeters dimensions will differ with different manufacturers . This motherboard supports a single or a twin CPU configuration and has up to eight RAM slots. Additionally, it has a higher number of PCIe where e is for Express and PCI slots, which may be used to add PCI cards for a wide range of applications. Workstations and servers are both able to use this software. There is sufficient room on all eATX motherboards, making them ideal for desktop computers, thanks to the significant space provided for airflow and the attachment of various components. 5. Flex ATX motherboard These ATX Form Factor mainboards do not enjoy the same degree of popularity as their ATX Form Factor counterparts. They are the ones within the ATX family that are considered the most compact. They were designed to occupy a minimal amount of space and had a minimal price tag. Flex ATX is a modification of mini ATX that Intel created between 1999-2000. It is a motherboard standard. 6. Low-Profile EXtended LPX motherboardIn comparison to previous iterations, this has two significant enhancements.


4. RAM memory RAM slots connect the random access memory RAM to the motherboard. RAM allows the computer to temporarily store files and programs that are being accessed by the CPU. Computers with more RAM capacity can hold and process larger files and programs, thus enhancing performance. However, RAM contents are erased when the computer is shut down. A computer usually has two RAM slots. However, some computers have up to four RAM slots in the motherboard to increase the available memory. 5. Basic input output BIOS system The BIOS contains the firmware of the motherboard. It consists of instructions about what to do when the computer is turned on. It is responsible for initializing the hardware components and loading the computer s operating system. The BIOS also allows the computer s operating system to interact and respond with input and output devices such as a mouse and keyboard. In some motherboards, the legacy BIOS is replaced by the modern extensible firmware interface EFI or the unified extensible firmware interface UEFI . UEFI and EFI allow the computer to boot faster, provide more diagnostic andrepair tools, and provide a more efficient interface between the operating system and computer components. 6. Chipsets The chipsets of a computer control how the computer hardware and buses interact with the CPU and other components. Chipsets also determine the amount of memory users can add to a motherboard and the type of connectors that the motherboard can have. The first type of chipset is the northbridge chipset. The northbridge manages the speed at which the CPU communicates with the components. It also controls the processor, the AGP video slot, and the RAM. The second type of chipset is the southbridge chipset. The southbridge chipset controls the rest of the components connected to the computer, including communication between the processor and expansion ports such as USB ports and sound cards. 7. Cooling fans The heat generated when electric current flows between components can make a computer run slowly. If too much heat is left to build up unchecked, it could damage computer components. Thus, a computer performs better when kept cool. Cooling fans increase the airflow, which helps to remove heat from the computer. Some elements, such as video adapter cards, have dedicated cooling fans. 8. Adapter cards and expansion slots Adapter cards are integrated into the motherboard to enhance a computer s functionality. Examples include sound and video adapters. The expansion slots allow users to install compatible adapter cards.


Adapter cards and expansion slots Adapter cards are integrated into the motherboard to enhance a computer s functionality. Examples include sound and video adapters. The expansion slots allow users to install compatible adapter cards. Examples of expansion slots include the peripheral component interconnect PCI slot, the AGP slot which enables the insertion of video cards , the PCI Express serial bus slot, and the PCI-extended slot. 9. CMOS batteryThe CMOS battery is a small round battery found on the motherboard of every computer. It provides power to the complementary metal oxide semiconductor CMOS chip. The CMOS chip stores BIOS information and computer settings, even when powered down. The CMOS battery allows users to skip resetting BIOS configurations, such as boot order, date, and time settings, each time they power on their computer. 10. Storage devices Storage drives store data permanently or retrieve data from a media disk. The storage devices can either be installed in the computer as hard drives or in removable drives that can connect to the computer through the USB ports. Hard disk drives HDD or solid-state drives SSD are computers primary storage drives. Computers with SSDs execute tasks much faster and perform better than HDDs. Users can also use optical drives such as compact discs to store information. 11. Front panel connectors Front panel connectors connect the light-emitting diode LED lights on the front of the case to the hard drive, the power button, the reset button, and the internal speaker for testing. Some USB and audio devices also have LED lights. These front panel connectors are usually plugged into small pins on the motherboard. Although the pins are grouped and color-coded, their layout structure varies depending on the model of the motherboard. 12. Power connector The power connector provides an electric supply to the computer to function as intended. The power supply connector has 20 pins and converts 110-V AC power into -12-Volt, -5-Volt, and 3.3-Volt direct current DC power. Functions of a Motherboard The following are seven functions of a motherboard:1. Manages data flow The BIOS component of the motherboard ensures that the operating system interacts well with input and output devices, such as the keyboard and mouse, to process instructions. This ensures that the data sent to the computer moves as expected to perform the intended purpose. It also manages data flow through its USB ports, allowing for data transfer between devices. Additionally, it ensures the processor can access information from the RAM to boost efficiency. 2.


It also manages data flow through its USB ports, allowing for data transfer between devices. Additionally, it ensures the processor can access information from the RAM to boost efficiency. 2. Conserves resources The motherboard saves consumers time, energy, and money by connecting all the computer connects. The motherboard provides a platform on which manufacturers can connect all the necessary components to ensure that the computer functions. Thus, saving consumers time and energy as they do not have to assemble and connect different parts manually. Moreover, collecting the individual components can prove costly as consumers would be forced to incur additional transport and other miscellaneous costs. 3. Optimizes power distribution The motherboard provides and distributes power optimally. Computers require electricity to function. The motherboard has a power connector plugthat connects the computer to a power source and converts it into a form of electrical power that the computer can use. After that, the motherboard ensures that the electric current is distributed optimally to different system components. The motherboard has an integrated circuit technology with pre-defined connections that ensure each element gets the necessary power. Moreover, the circuits ensure less energy is consumed to make the computer an energyefficient machine. 4. Drives communication The motherboard makes communication between different components easier. For a computer to process a particular set of instructions, sometimes it may require several components to communicate and work together to complete the task. In such scenarios, the motherboard relies on its circuit technology to enable communication between these components. The motherboard may also depend on some of its components, such as the CPU, BIOS, expansion ports, and USB ports, to interact with the computer s operating system. 5. Enhances performance The motherboard boosts the capabilities of a computer. Motherboards often transform the capabilities of a computer. For instance, they have additional features and functionalities, such as built-in sound and video capabilities that can enhance the computer s output. Motherboards also allow users to connect peripheral devices such as printers, enabling computers to perform additional tasks such as printing documents. Additionally, users can expand and upgrade factory-made motherboard parts such as memory slots or hard disks to boost the capabilities of their computers. 6. Improves reliability A good motherboard boosts the overall reliability of the computer. A highquality motherboard provides a stable foundation for its components to operate on. A good motherboard has proper cooling, and its integrated circuit technology is set in place. These factors enable it to control the computer s hardware efficiently by ensuring that each element functions as expected andcommunicates with the other components.


Data bus 3. Control bus The buses connect the CPU microprocessor to each of the memory and I O devices. The CPU is involved in sending or receiving information to or from memory location, input or output device, and a secondary memory device FDD or HDD . When the CPU sends data to a device or memory, it is called WRITE operation and when the CPU receives data it is called READ operation. The functions of buses are described now. Address Bus The address bus is unidirectional, information flows over it only in one direction, from the CPU to the memory or I O devices. The CPU generates addresses on the lines of the address bus. Each of the addresses corresponds to one memory location or one I O device. When the CPU wants to communicate with READ or WRITE , a certain memory location or I O device, it places the appropriate address on its address output. This address is then decoded to select the desired memory location or I O device. This decoding process usually requires address decoder circuits. Microprocessor local buses Data Bus The data bus is bidirectional and data can flow to the CPU through it. The data bus can be either input or output depending on whether the CPU performs a READ or a WRITE operation. During READ operation the data bus receives data that has been placed on the data bus by memory or I O device selected by the address. During WRITE operation the data bus acts as the output and places data on the data bus which are sent to a selected memory location or I O device. Control Bus The control bus consists of a set of signals that are used to synchronize the activities of separate microcomputer elements. Some of these control signals are sent by the CPU to the other components to tell them the type of operation in progress. The I O devices can send control signals to the CPU. Read Write, Rest, and interrupt are examples of control signals used in a microcomputer. Other busesCOMPUTER MONITOR OR VIDEO DISPLAY UNIT TYPES, AND FEATURES VDU 1. Short for visual display unit, VDU is an any device used with computers to display text and images. For example, a flat-panel display and a projector are both examples of VDUs. However, VDU most commonly describes the CRT cathode ray tube monitor, a now archaic standard replaced by flat-panel display methods like LED lightemitting diode . Early VDUs had a 13" screen size.


For example, a flat-panel display and a projector are both examples of VDUs. However, VDU most commonly describes the CRT cathode ray tube monitor, a now archaic standard replaced by flat-panel display methods like LED lightemitting diode . Early VDUs had a 13" screen size. By the mid-1990s, 15" and 17" VDU screen sizes became more common, with some 20" screen sizes being released. By the early 2000s, flat-panel monitors with 15" and 17" screen sizes gained popularity and started replacing CRT monitors. 2. Short for video display unit, VDU is a computing device that allows input from a user and output to a display, like a computer monitor. A VDU consists of a display device and a keyboard and could include a mouse. In the United States, it is sometimes known as a video display terminal or VDT video display terminal . Please note The computer monitor is an output device that is used to display softcopy data that is processed on the system unit. A computer monitor is also known as a screen or Visual Display Unit VDU . Some types of computer monitors are CRT, LCD, TFT, Plasma, OLED, LED, touch screen, and curved screens. To acquire a new computer screen, some of the features to consider are resolution, size, technology, refresh rate, video connector, aspect ratio, and viewing angle among other factors. Types of Computer monitors Computer monitors have evolved from the bulky big Cathode Ray Tube monitor to the ultra-slim curved screen that we have today. Some of the computer monitor types that you will find in the market include: 1. Cathode Ray Tube CRT . These are the oldest types of computer monitors and they used the technology of cathode rays. On the back of the screen, there is a cathode gun that shot rays through a vacuum into the screen. The screen has an anode and material that glows when hit by the electrons. The rays hit the glowing material and the image is created appropriately. The monitor had a long back side because the front and cathode gun had to be at a distance for it to give the best results. 2. Liquid Crystal Display LCD . They used the crystal liquid which is easy to be manipulated and changed when light strikes it. Compared to CRT they are lightweight, slimmer, and use less power. 3.


They used the crystal liquid which is easy to be manipulated and changed when light strikes it. Compared to CRT they are lightweight, slimmer, and use less power. 3. Light emitting diode LED It uses the light-emitting diode as the backlight which makes it slim because it doesn t need the distance that is required in CRT. They produce images with high resolution, are slimmer, less bulky, and produce less heat and less power. 4. Organic Light Emitting Diode OLED It is the latest technology an improvement from LED but still very expensive to produce in bulky. It has an organic substrate that glows when electricity is passed through it. They use less power and they are even slimmer because they don t need backlight since the substrate can produce light. 5. Touchscreens monitors Currently, computer screens are manufactured to take instruction from the human touch. An operating system such as Microsoft Windows 8 and above versions was developed to support a touch screen operation. There are 4 main technologies used for touch screens. A. Capacitive touch screen These screens use the capacitor concept which stores charge. Since the human body has electrical charges when you touch the screen at a specific position you discharge that particular point. The information is then sent to the processor which interprets what needs to be done. They are mostly used on smartphones in today s applications. B. Resistive touch screen The resistive screen uses the concept of resistors where it has two layers with a gap between them. For it to be effective the user has to press and not just touch because the two layers must make contact at the point where it has been pressed. When it is pressed the point can be identified and interpreted appropriately. These touch screens can be touched with a finger and any other objectthat can exact pressure and not a must that it has electrical changes. C. Infrared touch monitors They have an infrared emitter and receiver which create an invisible grid of rays. When you touch the screen you disrupt the ray transmission which is then recorded as a touch. D. Surface acoustic wave monitor These touch screens use sound waves to detect the touch. They have transducers and receivers on the opposite corners of the screen. When you touch the screen you disrupt the sound wave which is sensed as a touch command. 6. Plasma display panel They are flat-panel types of screens made up of small cells containing plasma. Plasma contains charged particles ions and electrons .


6. Plasma display panel They are flat-panel types of screens made up of small cells containing plasma. Plasma contains charged particles ions and electrons . When electricity is passed through them they emit light which forms an image. They are not common computer screens because they are more economical for big-size screens. 7. Curved computer monitor These are replacing flat screen monitors by offering a curved viewing screen. They offer a better viewing angle compared to a flat screen Factors to consider when choosing a good computer monitor1. Resolution: It is the number of pixels that can be displayed per inch of the screen. The higher the number the more clear the image that is displayed. 3. Aspect ratio: It is the ratio of the length horizontal and width vertical of the monitor. It determines how the image will be stretched on the screen. The main ratios are 4:3 and 16:10. 4. Viewing angle: It is the angle where you can view the image without distortion. CRT screens had a wide viewing angle than LCD screens. 5. Power consumption: LCD uses the least power compared to CRT and OLED type of technology. Less power means power is conserved and also it reduces overheating. 6. Technology: screen comes from different technology modes as discussed in different types above. The technology will determine the image quality, cost, and user preference. 7. Connector video input: latest video connector for monitors is HDMI. However, to be on the safe side you should have a computer screen that supports more than one way of connecting. If you are buying a screen for an already existing system unit make sure you check which is a compatible type of supported connection. 8. Ergonomics: most users spend more time on the screen and would like to get a screen design for comfort. Select a screen that has height adjustability, and can change screen brightness and contrast among other designs. 9. Refresh rate: this is the rate at which the screen can refresh the displayed image per second. A higher refresh rate means the image will be clear and it will not look like it hangs. It is measured in hertz and the higher the better. Most computer screens have 144Hz. 10. Contrast and brightness: contrast ratio is how dark the black part is and how bright the white parts of an image can get. While brightness is the measure of light that the screen can produce. 11. Built-in speakers: latest monitor come with an inbuilt speaker that can be used to complement the system unit speakers.


While brightness is the measure of light that the screen can produce. 11. Built-in speakers: latest monitor come with an inbuilt speaker that can be used to complement the system unit speakers. 12. USB port: USB port is a common connector interface in today s devices including screens. They can be used to load data without even connecting to the system unit. For future improvement and use, you can select a monitor that has a USB port. Types of computer screen connectors Every computer offers a connection port that allows the computer monitor to be connected to the system unit so that it can receive data being transmitted. Most monitors are connected using a VGA cable. The cable connects the VGA card which translates the information from the system unit into images and text that the user can be able to view. Other screen connectors are AUX, HDMI, DVI, and Display Port. Structure of Visual Display Unit The structure of a Visual Display Unit VDU can vary depending on the specific type of device, but most VDUs have several key components in common. Here is a general overview of the structure of a VDU:1. Display panel: This is the part of the VDU that actually displays the visual information. It is typically made of a thin layer of crystal or plastic, and can display images using a variety of technologies, such as liquid crystal display LCD or organic light-emitting diode OLED . 2. Backlight: Many VDUs, especially those used in portable devices, use a backlight to illuminate the display panel. This helps to make the images on the screen more visible in low light conditions. 3. Circuitry: The VDU contains a number of electronic circuits that control the display panel, the backlight, and other components of the device. 4. Housing: The VDU is typically enclosed in a housing or casing that protects the internal components and provides a way to mount the device. 5. Input output I O ports: The VDU may have one or more I O ports that allow it to receive data or signals from other devices, such as a computer or a cable TV box. 6. Power supply: Most VDUs require a source of power, which may be supplied through a power cord or a built-in battery. Functions of Visual Display Unit Some specific functions of a VDU include: 1. Displaying text and graphics: VDUs use a screen to display text and graphics, which can include text documents, spreadsheets, websites, and more. 2.


Functions of Visual Display Unit Some specific functions of a VDU include: 1. Displaying text and graphics: VDUs use a screen to display text and graphics, which can include text documents, spreadsheets, websites, and more. 2. Providing a visual interface: VDUs allow users to interact with a computer or other device by providing a visual interface through which users can see and understand the information being processed and input commands and data. 3. Allowing for multitasking: VDUs allow users to work on multiple tasks at the same time by displaying multiple windows or programs on the screen. 4. Supporting high-resolution displays: Some VDUs support highresolution displays, which can provide a more detailed and accurate representation of the information being displayed. 5. Providing connectivity: VDUs may have connectivity options, such as HDMI or DisplayPort, which allow users to connect the VDU to other devices, such as a computer or a television. Uses of Visual Display Unit Visual Display Units VDUs , also known as computer monitors, are used in a wide range of applications. Some common uses of VDUs include: 1. Office work: VDUs are commonly used in office environments to display text documents, spreadsheets, and other business-related information. 2. Education: VDUs are used in classrooms and educational settings to display educational materials and videos, and to allow students to interact with educational software. 3. Entertainment: VDUs are used to display movies, television shows, and video games, and they can also be used to access streaming services like Netflix or Hulu. 4. Gaming: VDUs are often used in conjunction with gaming consoles or PC gaming systems to display video games. 5. Design and graphics: VDUs are used by designers and graphic artists to create and edit graphics and other visual content. 6. Medical and scientific research: VDUs are used in medical and scientific research to display data and images, such as MRI scans or microscopy images. 7. Military and aviation: VDUs are used in military and aviation applications to display maps, navigation information, and other data. 8. Industrial and manufacturing: VDUs are used in industrial and manufacturing settings to display production data, machine status, and other information. Benefits of Visual Display Unit Visual Display Units VDUs , also known as computer monitors, offer a number of benefits, including: 1.


8. Industrial and manufacturing: VDUs are used in industrial and manufacturing settings to display production data, machine status, and other information. Benefits of Visual Display Unit Visual Display Units VDUs , also known as computer monitors, offer a number of benefits, including: 1. Improved productivity: VDUs allow users to work more efficiently by providing a clear and easy-to-read display of text and graphics. 2. Multitasking: VDUs allow users to work on multiple tasks at the same time by displaying multiple windows or programs on the screen. 3. High-resolution displays: Some VDUs support high-resolution displays, which can provide a more detailed and accurate representation of the information being displayed. 4. Connectivity: VDUs may have connectivity options, such as HDMI or Display Port, which allow users to connect the VDU to other devices, such as a computer or a television. 5. Easy to use: VDUs are generally easy to use, with simple controls and an intuitive interface. 6. Energy efficient: Many modern VDUs are energy efficient, which can help reduce electricity consumption and reduce the environmental impact of using a computer. 7. Customization: VDUs can be customized to meet the specific needs of the user, such as adjusting the display settings to reduce eye strain or to optimize the display for specific tasks. 8. Access to information: VDUs allow users to access a vast amount of information and data that is stored on computers, which can be useful for research, education, and more. Limitations of Visual Display Units VDUs Visual Display Units VDUs , also known as computer monitors, have a few limitations, including: 1. Limited viewing angles: Some VDUs have limited viewing angles, which means that the display may appear distorted or washed out if viewed from certain angles. 2. Limited display size: The size of a VDU is limited by the size of the screen, which may not be large enough to display certain types of information or graphics. 3. Limited color depth: Some VDUs may not support a wide range of colors, which can impact the accuracy and quality of the display. 4. Limited refresh rate: The refresh rate of a VDU refers to how often the display is updated, and a lower refresh rate can result in a less smooth and responsive display. 5.


4. Limited refresh rate: The refresh rate of a VDU refers to how often the display is updated, and a lower refresh rate can result in a less smooth and responsive display. 5. Limited resolution: The resolution of a VDU refers to the number of pixels on the screen, and a lower resolution can result in a less detailed and accurate display. 6. Limited lifespan: Like all electronic devices, VDUs have a limited lifespan and may need to be replaced after a certain period of time. 7. Cost: VDUs can be expensive, particularly high-end models with advanced features. 8. Environmental impact: The production and disposal of VDUs can have an impact on the environment, as they contain materials and chemicals that can be harmful if not properly managed. Hazards of Visual Display Unit There are a few potential hazards associated with using Visual Display Units VDUs , also known as computer monitors, including: 1. Eye strain: Prolonged use of a VDU can cause eye strain, which can cause symptoms such as dry eyes, blurred vision, and headache. 2. Repetitive strain injury: Repetitive actions, such as typing or using a mouse, can cause repetitive strain injuries, such as carpal tunnel syndrome. 3. Back pain: Poor posture while using a VDU can cause back pain, particularly if the workstation is not set up correctly. 4. Electromagnetic fields: Some VDUs emit electromagnetic fields, which have been linked to an increased risk of cancer and other health problems. However, the risks associated with electromagnetic fields from VDUs are generally considered to be low. EXAMPLES OF VDULCD vs LED Displays: The Differences When it comes to choosing between LCD and LED displays, the decision can often be confusing. At first glance, they may seem identical, but there are key differences in their construction, performance, and energy efficiency. In simple terms, LED displays are a type of LCD with a unique backlighting system, and they tend to offer better image quality and power efficiency than standard LCDs. LCD Displays LCD, which stands for Liquid Crystal Display, utilizes a panel of liquid crystal molecules to create images. These molecules twist and untwist to control the amount of light passing through them. However, they do not produce light on their own. Instead, they use a separate backlight or reflector to illuminate the liquid crystals. The backlight in traditional LCD panels is often a Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamp CCFL .


However, they do not produce light on their own. Instead, they use a separate backlight or reflector to illuminate the liquid crystals. The backlight in traditional LCD panels is often a Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamp CCFL . While these displays offer good image quality, they have some limitations. Generally, they consume more power and are bulkier than their LED counterparts. Moreover, they may not provide as high contrast or as vibrant colors. LED Displays LED, or Light Emitting Diode displays, are essentially a type of LCD display. The key difference lies in the backlighting system. Instead of using CCFL, LEDdisplays use tiny light-emitting diodes to illuminate the liquid crystals. This change in lighting source opens up a range of benefits. Firstly, LED displays are more energy efficient. LEDs consume less power than CCFL, making them a greener choice. Secondly, they allow for a slimmer and lighter design, making them ideal for modern, sleek devices. One of the critical advantages of LED displays is the potential for greater picture quality. In LED displays, the diodes can be dimmed or brightened individually. This feature, known as local dimming, enhances the contrast ratio, making blacks appear deeper and whites brighter. Consequently, images are more vibrant and lifelike. PRINTERS Different Types of Printers and Their Functions: What Are the Types of Printers? Thermal Transfer Printers Thermal printers use heat to create an image on special thermal paper. They provide direct thermal and thermal transfer, and they re commonly used in receipt printers, shipping label printers, and fax machines. Additionally, they re fast, quiet, and don t require ink or toner. However, the print quality of a thermal printer may fade, and the paper can be expensive. Dye-Sublimation PrintersDye-sublimation printers use heat to transfer dye onto special paper or other materials like fabric or plastic. They re popular for high-quality photo printing and creating customized items like mugs and T-shirts. Additionally, they produce vibrant, long-lasting prints with excellent color accuracy, but the cost of consumables ink and paper can be relatively high. And they re not ideal for standard office documents. 3D Printers 3D printers create three-dimensional objects by layering material often plastic on top of itself based on a digital 3D model.


The best part? UV printing offers vibrant colors and durability on various surfaces. However, initial equipment costs can be high, and maintenance may be needed to keep the printer functioning optimally. Digital Presses Digital presses make a great choice for commercial printing and publishing. They re high-volume printing machines suitable for large quantities of books, brochures, and other printed materials. They offer fast, consistent, high-quality printing for large print runs. However, they re expensive and may require specialized training to operate effectively. In summary, there s a wide array of printers, each designed for specific purposes and printing needs. Choosing the right printer depends on the type of documents or images you need to print, the printing volume, and your budget. Consider your requirements carefully to select the printer that best suits your needs, whether for everyday home use, office tasks, creative projects, or industrial applications. Other Types of Printers 9. Plotters HP 9862A Calculator Plotter Example: HP Design Jet T210 A plotter prints vector graphics by drawing lines on paper using a pen. Some plotters use markers to draw multiple, continuous lines onto paper, while some use knives to cut a material like leather or vinyl. The latter is called cutting plotters. These devices have been phased out by computer-controlled printing machines. However, cutting plotters are still used in many industries. Pros Prints on large sheets of paper with high resolution Draws a single pattern more than one thousand times with no degradation Works with various materials, including cardboard, plywood, plastic, and aluminum Cons Expensive and larger than a conventional printer 8. Impact Printers The impact printer physically presses an inked ribbon against the page. Its plastic or metal head strikes the ink ribbon, whereby the ribbon is pressed against the page, and the specific character impression is printed on the paper. Although this mechanism is quite old, impact printers are still widely used in workplaces and industries. Many different types of impact printers have been developed to date. The most common ones are:8.1 Line Printers IBM 1403 line printer Example: Printronix P7-1500N line matrix printer As the name suggests, Line printers print one line of text at a time the full width of the page . They use a continuous feed of paper instead of individual cut sheets. And they can print up to 2,500 lines per minute.


The most common ones are:8.1 Line Printers IBM 1403 line printer Example: Printronix P7-1500N line matrix printer As the name suggests, Line printers print one line of text at a time the full width of the page . They use a continuous feed of paper instead of individual cut sheets. And they can print up to 2,500 lines per minute. Pros High-speed printing More durable Low operating costs Consumables are less harmful to the environment Cons Low print quality and cannot print graphics Very noisy, requires sound-absorbing cases 8.2 Dot Matrix Printers Epson LX310 Example: Tvs MSP 250 In a dot matrix printer, the pins are arranged in one or multiple vertical columns. The print head which contains several pins moves up and down or in a back and forth motion and prints by striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the page. This is just like a typewriter, but it can also print arbitrary patterns and not just particular characters. A character printed by a dot matrix printer is actually an accumulation of multiple dots on a very small region of the paper. The printer can be used for text, multiple fonts, and basic graphical printing. The outputs, however, have a dotted appearance. Pros Low printing cost Reliable Prints on multipart forms or carbon copies Useful for data logging Cons Slow speed Limited print quality They can be used to print multiple copies at the same time with the help of carbon copying. Thus, they are widely installed in offices and shops where multipart forms are required. 8.3 Daisy Wheel Printers The daisy wheel and print head on a Diablo D-25 printerExample: Commodore DPS 1101 A daisy wheel printer contains a disk and attached extension on which molded metal characters are mounted. When printing, the printer rotates the disk to each character and strikes it into an ink ribbon to create characters on paper. Pros Can use heavy paper grades and fan-fold paper Can create carbon copies Low costs and maintenance Cons Slow speed Low print quality 7. Minilab Printers SureLab D870Example: Epson Sure Lab D1070DE Minilabs are small photographic-developing and printing systems that are used in several retail stores to provide quick photo finishing services.


When printing, the printer rotates the disk to each character and strikes it into an ink ribbon to create characters on paper. Pros Can use heavy paper grades and fan-fold paper Can create carbon copies Low costs and maintenance Cons Slow speed Low print quality 7. Minilab Printers SureLab D870Example: Epson Sure Lab D1070DE Minilabs are small photographic-developing and printing systems that are used in several retail stores to provide quick photo finishing services. A minilab machine is made of two systems: a film processor and a printer paper processor . Pros Perfect for photo processing High-capacity ink packs Prints on double- or single-sided sheet media Provides better exposed, color-corrected prints in less than 30 minutes Cons Quite pricey Larger and bulkier and than typical printers The Agfa and Kodak minilab machines use C41b chemistry to process films and RA-4 chemistry to process the paper. Depending on the device capabilities and operator s expertise, films can be ready for collection within 20 minutes. 6. Thermal PrintersF2C portable thermal printer Example: Polono Label Printers A thermal printer is made of three components: Thermal head: Generates heat to produce an image on the page Platen: A roller that moves the page Spring: Holds the printhead and paper together by applying small pressure The printer passes paper with a thermochromic coating over a print head. This print head contains several electrically heated elements, typically arranged as a line of small, closely spaced dots. The coating on the paper turns black in the region where it is heated, generating an image. These printers can have a resolution of up to 1,200 DPI. Although most of them print black and white monochrome text, some produce twocolor images. Due to decent print quality, speed, and portability, thermal printers are widely used in the banking, retail, grocery, healthcare, and airline industries. Voucher printers in slot machines, information kiosks, and point of sale systems are some of the commercial applications of these printers.


Although most of them print black and white monochrome text, some produce twocolor images. Due to decent print quality, speed, and portability, thermal printers are widely used in the banking, retail, grocery, healthcare, and airline industries. Voucher printers in slot machines, information kiosks, and point of sale systems are some of the commercial applications of these printers. Pros More quiet and faster than dot matrix printers Easier to use as there is less use of software involved Requires less maintenance Comes in various models and sizes Cons Prints fewer colors The high heat limits wax and resin choices They are also used to generate sub-seafloor seismic imagery and print real-time records of side-scan sonar. In the data processing field, they are used for quickly creating hard copies of continuous hydrographic or seismic records. 5. Dye-sublimation PrintersTexart RT-640 Example: Texart XT-640 High-Volume Dye-Sublimation Printer Dye-sublimation printers utilize heat to transfer dye onto materials like card, paper, fabric, or plastic. They use the CMYO cyan, magenta, yellow, over coating system to deposit the ink on the surface one color at a time. The ink is deposited via a heat press, which ultimately changes from solid to gas hence the name sublimation and enters the material. The process is carried out at lower temperatures and higher pressures. Small heating elements on the print head change temperatures quickly to lay different amounts of dye. Polyester and polyester resin-coated substances are the perfect materials for this printing technique. Pros Allows printing on rigid surfaces Print thousands of colors using four-color ink CMYK Best for creating ID cards and photographic prints Short learning curveCons The item may lose color over the months Specific type of ink is required Professional and consumer dye-sublimation printers are developed for creating photographic prints, ID cards, license plates, etc. And since these printers are available in various sizes and styles, consumers can print on various products like mouse pads, coffee mugs, handbags, smartphone cases, dresses, pillows, and more. 4. Solid Ink Printers Example: HP Laserjet M209DW As the name suggests, these printers use solid ink instead of fluid ink or toner powder.


And since these printers are available in various sizes and styles, consumers can print on various products like mouse pads, coffee mugs, handbags, smartphone cases, dresses, pillows, and more. 4. Solid Ink Printers Example: HP Laserjet M209DW As the name suggests, these printers use solid ink instead of fluid ink or toner powder. The printer melts the ink which is usually a waxy resinbased polymer to print images on paper or any substrate. This is how the process goes: small pucks or spheres of solid ink are stored in a hopper. From there, they are transferred to the printhead and melted as per the requirement. Pros Provides precise prints with bright colors Can print on many different types of media Less waste generated compared to inkjet or laser printers Suitable for intermittent use with long periods of downtime Cons The printer need to pause and reheat in between prints Ink may clog printhead nozzles This type of printer can create large graphic images with bright and vivid colors at reasonable costs. It is suitable for users who always have to print in color and require high-quality images. And since the solid ink doesn t dry out over time, you don t have to order new cartridges when you need to print something after a long time. 3. 3D PrintersPrusa I3 MK3S Example: Tronxy X5SA Pro 3D printers are based on a technique called additive manufacturing. They create a physical three-dimensional object from a CAD computeraided design or digital model. It involves adding materials such as powder grains or composites or bio-materials layer by layer at the millimeter scale. Unlike injection molding and CNC machining that uses various cutting tools to make objects, 3D printers require no cutting tools. They construct objects directly onto the built platform. Pros Enables fast design and production Gives you the flexibility to create anything that fits within its build volume Minimize waste Cost-effective Cons Not yet versatile enough to work with most materials Requires post processing Depending on the type of printer, material used, and size of the object, a print takes several hours to complete. The finished object often requires post-processing like sanding, paint, or other conventional finishing touches to achieve the desired surface finish. 3D printing processes can be categorized into 7 groups: 1. Vat photo polymerization 2.


The finished object often requires post-processing like sanding, paint, or other conventional finishing touches to achieve the desired surface finish. 3D printing processes can be categorized into 7 groups: 1. Vat photo polymerization 2. Material Extrusion 3. Sheet Lamination 4. Directed Energy Deposition 5. Material Jetting 6. Binder Jetting 7. Powder Bed Fusion Modern 3D printers are advanced enough to create complex structures and geometries that would be otherwise impossible to build manually. They can be used to build a range of objects, from simple prototypes to intricate final products, such as medical instruments, aircraft parts, ecofriendly buildings, and even artificial organs using layers of human cells. 2. Liquid Inkjet PrintersHP Smart Tank 530 Example: Canon PIXMA G3260 The inkjet printer creates an image by propelling droplets of ink onto paper or plastic substrates. Its print head moves back and forth as the paper feeds through rollers. The complete image is made of thousands of minuscule dots, like the pixels on a television screen. These dots are extremely small between 50 and 70 microns in diameter and positioned very precisely with resolutions up to 1200 x 1440 DPI. Also, these dots can have multiple colors combined together to produce high-quality pictures. Pros Quieter than impact printers Practically no warm uptime Really good at producing natural shades and colors Easy to set up and use Cons Liquid ink can dry out when stored for a longer period of time Expensive ink refillsLiquid inkjet printers perform best on nonporous paper and slightly heavy bond paper with a hard surface that effectively prevents colors from bleeding. They are available in many different varieties and sizes, ranging from small cost-efficient consumer models to expensive professional machines. While most home inkjet printers are lightweight and have low per-page costs, commercial machines are larger and print on a broader range of materials. 1. Laser Printers Pantum M6602NW Example: HP OfficeJet 5255 Laser printers have become a common consumer product, often used along with personal computers. Their working principle involves electrophotographic, which is the same technique used in photocopy machines. To create a high-quality image, the laser printer continuously passes a laser beam back and forth over a photoreceptor drum. This drum is nothing but a negatively charged cylinder.


Their working principle involves electrophotographic, which is the same technique used in photocopy machines. To create a high-quality image, the laser printer continuously passes a laser beam back and forth over a photoreceptor drum. This drum is nothing but a negatively charged cylinder. It collects positively chargedpowdered ink toner and transmits the image to paper. The paper is then slightly heated to permanently fuse the image onto it. The standard resolution in most laser printers is 600 DPI, whereas the high-end production machine can have a resolution of 2,400 DPI. Plus, they can print at a much faster rate than inkjet printers. A high-end model can print about 12,000 monochrome pages per hour or 6,000 colored pages per hour. However, they don t print color photos as well as inkjet printers do. That s why most photographers and designers prefer inkjet printers for gallery-quality photos. Pros Fast printing speed Noiseless Produces high-quality monochrome prints Mechanical components are reliable and durable Cons High initial investment cost Not suitable for high quality graphics Laser printers are well suited for office use due to their capability to quickly print large amounts of documents. Overall, they are excellent for text, documents, and printing medium-quality color photos1.1 LED Printers OKI MC853dn Example: Xerox VersaLink C7000DN LED light-emitting diode printers are generally grouped with laser printers because they use a similar technique for creating text or graphics. Both use a toner, drum, and fuser to provide high-quality prints. However, LED printers have an array of light-emitting diodes instead of a laser and mirror. Since LED printers contain fewer moving parts, they are more reliable and efficient than traditional laser printers. Plus, they are cheaper to manufacture and less prone to mechanical wear. Pros Contains fewer moving parts Inexpensive and reliable Noiseless Provides excellent image quality Cons High initial cost Slower printing speed than laser printersFactors to consider when selecting a printer Choosing the best printer can be overwhelming with so many options. To help you decide which type of new printer you should buy, consider the following factors and your specific needs: Printing Purpose Home Use: If you need a printer primarily for occasional home use, like printing documents, school assignments, or family photos, an inkjet printer should suffice.


Plus, they are cheaper to manufacture and less prone to mechanical wear. Pros Contains fewer moving parts Inexpensive and reliable Noiseless Provides excellent image quality Cons High initial cost Slower printing speed than laser printersFactors to consider when selecting a printer Choosing the best printer can be overwhelming with so many options. To help you decide which type of new printer you should buy, consider the following factors and your specific needs: Printing Purpose Home Use: If you need a printer primarily for occasional home use, like printing documents, school assignments, or family photos, an inkjet printer should suffice. They re affordable and can handle a variety of printing tasks. Small Businesses: A laser printer is a good choice for a small office or home office SOHO where you must print frequently. It offers fast and efficient text printing. Color or Black and White Consider an inkjet or color laser printer if you need to print in color. For basic black-andwhite documents, a monochrome laser printer is cost-effective. Print Volume For bulk printing, a laser printer with a high page-per-minute PPM rate and a large paper tray may be more suitable. Inkjet printers make a better choice for lower print volumes. Printing Photos If you re into photography and want to print photos, a dedicated photo printer or a highquality color inkjet printer with photo capabilities is a good choice. Consider other costs like glossy photo paper for the printing process, maintenance, etc. Size and Space Consider the available space where you plan to put the printer. Consider a compact inkjet printer if you have a small space, as laser printers can be larger. All-in-One or Single Function An all-in-one a multifunction printer combines printing, copying, scanning, and even faxing in one machine. It s convenient for saving space and money if you need these functions. Connectivity Options Ensure the printer you choose has the connectivity options you need. Common features include USB, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and mobile printing capabilities. Cost Considerations Think about both the upfront cost of the printer and the long-term cost of consumables like ink or toner cartridges. Some printers may be inexpensive initially but cost more to maintain. Brand and Model Consider reputable brands known for quality and reliability. Read reviews and compare printer models within your budget. Additional Features Some printers have extra features like automatic duplex double-sided printing, touchscreen controls, and memory card slots for direct photo printing.


Brand and Model Consider reputable brands known for quality and reliability. Read reviews and compare printer models within your budget. Additional Features Some printers have extra features like automatic duplex double-sided printing, touchscreen controls, and memory card slots for direct photo printing. Assess whether these features matter to you. Compatibility Ensure the printer is compatible with your computer s operating system. Most modern printers support Windows and macOS, but it s always good to check. Warranty and Support Check the warranty, warranty extensions, and available customer support for the printer. Extremely reliable customer service can be crucial if you encounter any issues. Environmental Considerations If you re eco-conscious, look for printers with energy-saving features, recyclable ink or toner cartridges, and eco-friendly certifications. In summary, the type of printer you should buy depends on your specific needs and budget. Consider your printing volume, fast print speeds, whether you need color printing, available space, and any extra features for high-quality prints you require. It s also a good idea to read reviews and compare prices before deciding. Considering these factors, you can find a printer that suits your print jobs and helps you achieve your printing goals efficiently. How to Print a Document from Your Computer 1 Make sure that your printer is connected and turned on. If your printer connects over Wi-Fi, this will mean making sure that you're on the same Internet network as your printer; otherwise, you'll need to plug your printer's USB cable into your computer. Check your printer's manual to confirm how to set it up if you haven't already done so. Be sure to update your printer drivers. 2 Open the document you want to print. This could be a PDF, Word document, Excel spreadsheet, or even photos. Use the File Explorer to find the file if needed. 3 On your keyboard, press Ctrl P . This is the keyboard shortcut to open the print menu. You can also manually open the print menu by clicking the printer icon. In some apps, you'll need to click File and then Print. The print menu may look different depending on the application used to open your file. 4 Select your printer. Click the "Printer" drop-down box, then click your printer's name. If you don't see your printer, you'll need to add it. 5 Select a number of copies. In the "Copies" box, type in the number of copies of the document that you'd like to print.


First we ll tell you what RAM memory alternatively referred to as main memory, primary memory, or system memory, Random Access Memory RAM in a computer system, it is also sometimes known as read-write memory or RWM, then we ll go over how RAM works in Macintosh s and pcs. Also, there are different kinds of RAM, including VRAM, PRAM, DRAM and SRAM . Random access memory RAM This is the most common type of main memory. It is called random access memory RAM because ; its content can be read directlyregardless of the sequence in which it was stored. As opposed to ROM, the content in RAM is held temporarily and its content is lost once the computer is turned off. Characteristics of random access memory RAM are: 1.Data can be read retrieved and written stored in it. 2 .RAM is a temporary volatile storage because its content disappears when the computer is switched off. 3.Its content is user defined i.e. the user dictates what is to be contained in the RAM. Types of RAM There are two types of-RAM namely, static RAM SRAM and dynamic DRAM .Static RAM is very fast compared to dynamic RAM and holds its content as long as there is power. Dynamic RAM on the other hand can only hold its content for a short while even when power is all .To maintain the content of dynamic RAM, the memory chip is designed in away that its content is refreshed automatically rewritten severally per second. Static RAM is more expensive. It is mostly used to make special types of memories. Special purpose memories Apart from ROM and RAM there are several types of special purpose memories found inside the CPU or in the input and output devices. These memories are vital because they increase the overall performance of data and instructions moving in and out of the CPU. These memories include buffers, registers and cache memory. Buffers This is a temporary holding place that may be part of the CPU or built in an input or output device. Because the CPU is very fast compared to the input or output devices, buffers provide temporary storage so that the CPU is set free to carry out other activities instead of waiting for all data to be entered or information to be output. For example since a printer cannot work at the speed of a CPU, the printer buffers temporarily holds the output to be printed hence freeing the CPU to perform other functions. Buffers can hold more than one piece of data at a time.


Example: 453 This number is the answer 321 145413 1284 321 x 4 1284 1701 Subtract 1284 from 1454 and bring down the 1 1605 321 x 5 1605 963 Subtract 1605 from 1701 and bring down the 3 963 321 x 3 963 0 Subtract 963 from 963 Exercise 3 Do these calculations. Show your method. Not just an answer. A 432 128 - 248 529 b 164 600 196 4169 GM 2023 c 35 x 78 d 5 822 16 e 80 357 619 450 f 231 609 218 344 g 27 x 39 h 9 206 28 Exercise 4 1. Use the HORIZONTAL METHOD a 456 350 239 b 648 352 371 2. Use the VERTICAL METHOD a 1 226 x 82 b 3 437 x 24 HCF and LCM The HCF and LCM are numbers that share the same factors. These are called common factors and you can find the highest common factor, HCF, of two or more numbers. You can also find the lowest common multiple, LCM, of two or more numbers. Example: The multiples of 12 are 12 ; 24; 36; 48; 60; 72 ; 84; and the multiples of 15 are 15; 30; 45; 60; 75; 90; which means that the LCM of 12 and 15 is 60. You can use the prime factor method for finding the LCM or an HCF . For example: 12 2 x 2 x 3 and 15 3 x 5 so the LCM is 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 which contains all possible prime factors of both numbers. The HCF of 12 and 15 is 3 as that is the highest factor common to both numbers.


12 GM 2023 Complete the sums below using BODMAS BOMDAS. No CALCULATORS are allowed. Show all working out. A 30 X 12 4 0f 20 b 17 x 25 x 24 2 10 x 10 c 24 14 x 25 5 d 235 80 x 50 10 215 of 8 e 200 20 285 95 8 4 f 790 1 000 125 50 10 g 50 35 of 75 32 h 470 692 x 10 20 630 PROBLEM SOLVING: BRAIN TEASER Two lighthouse beacons can be seen from the top of a hill. These two beacons start flashing at the same time. One beacon flashes every 4 minutes and the other flashes every 9 minutes. Calculate how long it will be before they both flash at the same time again. Use your 4 x and 9 x table to calculate. Exercise 8 There are special rules that apply to the number zero and the number one. 1. What happens to numbers when you multiply or divide by 1? Solve these problems. A 28 1 b 28 1 c 8 344 1 d 8 344 1 e What can you conclude about multiplying or dividing by 1? 13 GM 2023 2. What happens to numbers when you add or subtract 0? Solve these problems. A 429 0 b 429 0 c 5 360 0 d What can you conclude about adding or subtracting 0. 3. What happens when we multiply by 0? A What does it mean when we say 4 0? 4. What happens when we divide 0 by a whole number? A 0 4 b 0 8 c 0 58 d 0 347 5. What happens when we divide by zero?


What happens when we divide 0 by a whole number? A 0 4 b 0 8 c 0 58 d 0 347 5. What happens when we divide by zero? A 4 0 b 8 0 c 58 0 d 347 0 RATIO AND RATE RATIO A ratio is used to compare the sizes of two or more quantities that use the same unit of measurement. A ratio of 5:6 means that for every 5 of the first quantity, there are 6 of the second quantity. Ratio can also be written as a fraction. In the ratio 5:6, the first quantity would be written as 511. The second quantity would be written as611. Ratios can be simplified, e.g., 10:12 can be simplified to 5:6. Another example: The ratio of an original price of a coat to the sale price is R300:R210. We simplify this to 10:714 GM 2023 RATE A rate is used to compare the sizes of two or more quantities that use different units of measurement, e.g., hours h , minutes m , Rands R , millimeters mm , centimeters cm , etc. Exercise 9 1. Simplify the ratio 32:16. 2. Write the fraction 32 48 in its simplest form. 3. Now write the ratio 32:48 in its simplest form. 4. The ratio of women engineers to men engineers in a construction company is 2:7. A There are six women engineers. How many men engineers are there in the company? B How many engineers are there in the company altogether? C What fraction of the total number of engineers are women? D The company decides to improve their gender equality. The company wants to change the ratio of women engineers to men engineers to 2:5. The company cannot afford to employ more than 28 engineers in total. When the company achieves this ratio, how many women engineers and men engineers would they have? SHARING A WHOLE IN A GIVEN RATIO Share R 2 250,00 in the ratio 3:2:1 This means 3:2:1 that 3 2 1 6 parts of the whole 2 250.


CONVERTING FRACTIONS To convert an improper fraction to a mixed number, simply divide the number by the denominator: Example: 12 5 12 5 2 r 2 We write this as 2 25 To convert a mixed number to an improper fraction, multiply the whole number by the denominator. Add the numerator to this. Write this answer as the numerator and keep the denominator the same. Examples: 8 Multiply 8 by 2, and then add 1 This will give you a total of 17 The improper fraction will therefore be 172 Exercise 12 1. Convert the improper fractions to mixed numbers: 3 15 1000125 2. Convert the mixed numbers to improper fractions: 1323; 17811; 437; 6415; 971218 GM 2023 Equivalent fractions SIMPLIFYING FRACTIONS To simplify a fraction, you must reduce the fraction to its smallest form. To do this, you need to divide both the numerator and the denominator by the same highest common factor. Example:12 30 The highest number that can fit into both 12 and 30 is 6. 6 is therefore the highest common factor HCF Divide the numerator and denominator by the highest common factor. E.g. 12 30 66 25 SO: 12 30 25 NB: A common fraction must always be written in the simplest form! Exercise 13 1. Equivalent fractions a 3035 7 b 1144 1 c 6390 7 d 911 99 19 GM 2023 2.


12 30 66 25 SO: 12 30 25 NB: A common fraction must always be written in the simplest form! Exercise 13 1. Equivalent fractions a 3035 7 b 1144 1 c 6390 7 d 911 99 19 GM 2023 2. Simplifying fractions 1890 ; 32545 ; 946112 ; 52460 FRACTIONS OF QUANTITIES When asked to work out a fraction of a quantity, use one of the following methods: Method 1: 110 of 30 Bodmas Rule: of becomes x 110 301 Multiply numerators, then denominators 3010 Reduce answer to simplest form 31 3 Method 2: 110 of 30 by 10; x1 3 Exercise 14 a 34 of 200 b 710 of 150 c 58 of 800 d 45 of 375 GIVING PARTS OF QUANTITIES AS FRACTIONS First change the amounts to the same unit of measurement. Write both amounts as fractions. Reduce the fraction to its simplest form. Example: What fraction is 20c of R2? R2 200c Same unit of measurement 20200 2010 Both amounts as fractions 110 Simplest form 20 GM 2023 Exercise 15 1. Solve the problems given below, in your books, and remember to show your workings: a What is 34 of 640? B What is 23 of 900? C What fraction is 58 of 800? D What is 56 of 300? E What fraction is 14 hours of 1 week? Exercise 16 1. Complete by filling in , or . Show your working out: a 20 b 10 c 60 d 18 e 8 f 102 2. Arrange these fractions in descending order, show your working out: a 4 6 79 b 2 6 812 3.


5 3 2 6. 6 of 3 2 Exercise 20 1. A baker uses 1 45 of a 10kg bag of flour each day. How much flour does he use? A In a day b In a week 2. A recipe for biscuits makes 24 biscuits. A baker needs to make 3 34 of that amount. How many biscuits will he make? 3. Kimera is given R240. Her mother tells her to spend 38 on flour, 15 on sugar and to bring home the change. A What fraction of the money will she bring home? B How much money will this be? 4. Oliver s petrol tank is 45 full. His car will use 1215 of this amount to complete its next journey. What fraction of petrol will be used? 23 GM 2023 5. A shop keeper grants a discount of 23 off a damaged product so that he can clear a space for his new stock. The original sale price is R330. How much will the customer pay for the damaged product? 6. Siya is given R450 for his birthday. He uses 15 to buy shoes, 115 on CDs, 16 for games and 12 on clothes. A What fraction of the money has been spent? B How much change will he receive? 7. There are 185 learners in a Grade Seven group. 35 of these learners are girls. How many boys are there? DECIMAL FRACTIONS What is a decimal fraction? A decimal fraction is a number that is written with a comma. Decimals are commonly used to indicate temperature, length, mass, money, and other forms of measurement. Proper common fractions can be expressed in a decimal form e.g. 4,9 4 910 If we have 9 units and we add 1 more, we now have a Ten. Each place value on the left is 10 times bigger than the one on the right, e.g.


Example: 493,64 700 496,64 100 733 GM 2023 4,9664 7 0,705 Exercise 28 1. Complete the following: a 71,435 7 d 24,1 4 b 6,257 5 e 288,144 12 c 837,84 6 2. Write down the answers to the following: a 165,2 1000 d 143 725,811 1000 b 18,976 10 e 0,8 100 c 0,0731 100 3. Use any method to complete the following: a 29,185 50 b 571,424 700 c 32,13 9000 d 146,5 20 e 8166,128 400 FINANCIAL MATHS Money in South Africa: The rand, sign R: and the code ZAR , is the currency of South Africa and is issued by the South African Reserve Bank. It gets its name from the Witwatersrand, the ridge upon which Johannesburg is built and where most of South Africa s gold deposits were found. The rand has the symbol R and is equal to 100 cents, symbol c . 34 GM 2023 FINANCES PROFIT, LOSS AND DISCOUNT Profit is the surplus remaining after total costs are deducted from total revenue. Revenue means your income. Profit can be calculated in different ways. Normally when we talk about a 10 profit, we calculate it on the cost price. We sometimes also refer to a 10 mark-up. Example: If I sell a football which cost me R200,00 for R220,00, I made a 10 profit. Loss is the excess of expenditure over income. Discount is the amount deducted from the asking price before payment. Remember that profit and loss do not only apply to businesses but also to your personal income. Exercise 29 Are you making a profit or a loss in these examples. How much profit or loss? 1a You are buying sweets for 45c and selling them for 65c each.


Exercise 29 Are you making a profit or a loss in these examples. How much profit or loss? 1a You are buying sweets for 45c and selling them for 65c each. I made a profit loss of amount per sweet. B You are buying pencils for R2,00 each and selling them for R2,40 each to your friends. You manage to sell 40 pencils. I made a profit loss of amount . C On Saturdays you hire a stall at the local flea-market for R50,00. You are buying juice for R1.50 each and selling them for R2,50 each. Last Saturday it was cold, and you only managed to sell 40. I made a profit loss of amount . D You are buying biscuits in large packets of 100 for R10,45 per packet. You are selling to your friends for 30c per biscuit. During the first break, you manage to sell 75 biscuits. I made a profit loss of amount . E You are buying fruit directly from the market and selling it to your neighbours, friends, and family. Last weekend you bought 3 boxes of bananas. Each box contained 12 bunches of 12 bananas each. Each box cost you R75,00. You managed to sell 80 of35 GM 2023 the bananas at 65c each before the rest were too ripe and you had to throw them away. I made a profit loss of amount . 2a You are buying sweets for 45 c each and you want to make a 25 profit. How much must you sell them for? Amount . B You are buying pens for R1,27 each and you want to make a 17 profit. How much must you sell them for? Amount . C On Sundays you hire a stall at the local flea-market for R50,00. You buy juice for R1,50 per box and you normally sell 200 units per Sunday. If you want to make a 35 profit after paying for the stall, how much must you ask per fruit juice? Amount . FINANCES - BUDGET Do you know what a budget is? Can I have my own budget or is it only for adults? Budget is the estimate of cost and revenues over a specific period.


FINANCES - BUDGET Do you know what a budget is?Can I have my own budget or is it only for adults?Budget is the estimate of cost and revenues over a specific period. Budget is like a scale where you try to balance your income and your expenses. Important: Your income should always outweigh your expenses. Creating a budget is the most important step in controlling your money. The first rule of budgeting is: Spend less than you earn!Example: If you received a R250,00 allowance pocket money per month and another R80 for your birthday, you cannot spend more than R330,00 for the entire month. Net income is, like profit, the surplus remaining after all costs are deducted from total gross revenue. If the expenses exceed the income, we call it a shortage. It is always a bright idea to SAVE for a RAINY day!FINANCES- LOANS AND INTEREST What is a loan?What is interest?A loan is a sum of money that an individual or a company lends to an individual or a company with the objective of gaining profits from interest when the money is paid back.36 GM 2023 Interest is the fee charged by a lender to a borrower for the use of borrowed money, usually expressed as an annual percentage of the amount borrowed, also called interest rate. There are two kinds of interest: Simple and compound. Simple or flat rate interest is usually paid each year as a fixed percentage of the amount borrowed or lent at the start. With compound interest, you also pay interest on the interest!The simple interest formula is as follows: Interest Principal x Rate x Time Where: Interest is the total amount of interest paid. Principal is the mount lent or borrowed. Rate is the percentage of the principal charged as interest each year. Time is the time in years to pay back the loan. It is never a good idea to BORROW money. Rather SAVE until you can afford to buy something!END OF TERM 1 AND WE MADE IT!


All art uses some blend of many or all of these aspects in order to be pleasing to the eye or to communicate its message. For example, Grant Wood's Fall Plowing uses a blend of color, repetition, line, shape and balance to bring his piece to life. He uses bold greens, yellows and reds, hard, flowing crop lines, and repetition of fun shapes to guide the viewer's eye over what seems to be a fairly serene scene of a freshly plowed field. To analyze the visual elements of visual arts one has to Consider the composition, colors, textures, size, space, and other visual and material attributes of the artwork The seven principles of visual arts 1. Balance refers to the visual weight of the elements of the composition. It is a sense that the painting feels stable and "feels right.". Imbalance causes a feeling of discomfort in the viewer. Balance can be achieved in 3 different ways: Symmetry, in which both sides of a composition have the same elements in the same position, as in a mirror-image, or the two sides of a face. Asymmetry, in which the composition is balanced due to the contrast of any of the elements of art. For example, a large circle on one side of a composition might be balanced by a small square on the other side Radial symmetry, in which elements are equally spaced around a central point, as in the spokes coming out of the hub of a bicycle tire. Contrast This is the difference between elements of art in a composition, such that each element is made stronger in relation to the other. When placed next to each other, contrasting elements command the viewer's attention. Areas of contrast are among the first places that a viewer's eye is drawn. Contrast can be achieved by juxtapositions of any of the elements of art. Negative Positive space is an example of contrast. Complementary colors placed side by side is an example of contrast. Notan is an example of contrast. Emphasis This is when the artist creates an area of the composition that is visually dominant and commands the viewer's attention. This is often achieved by contrast. Movement is the result of using the elements of art such that they move the viewer's eye around and within the image. A sense of movement can be created by diagonal or curvy lines, either real or implied, by edges, by the illusion of space, by repetition, by energetic mark-making.


This is often achieved by contrast. Movement is the result of using the elements of art such that they move the viewer's eye around and within the image. A sense of movement can be created by diagonal or curvy lines, either real or implied, by edges, by the illusion of space, by repetition, by energetic mark-making. Pattern is the uniform repetition of any of the elements of art or any combination thereof. Anything can be turned into a pattern through repetition. Some classic patterns are spirals, grids, weaves. For examples of different pattern types see the Artlandia Glossary of Pattern Design. A popular drawing practice is Zentangles, in which an abstract or representational outline is divided into different areas, each of which contains a unique pattern. Rhythm This is created by movement implied through the repetition of elements of art in a nonuniform but organized way. It is related to rhythm in music. Unlike pattern, which demands consistency, rhythm relies on variety. Unity Variety You want your painting to feel unified such that all the elements fit together comfortably. Too much unity creates monotony, too much variety creates chaos. You need both. Ideally, you want areas of interest in your composition along with places for your eye to rest. PAINTING Colour wheel Colour wheel a diagram used in the visual arts to represent the colours of the visible spectrum and their relationships to one another. The colours are arranged systematically into a circle, with each hue usually falling into one of three categories: 1. Primary2. Secondary 3. Intermediate. Colour gradation strip for colour contrast Start with your chosen colour at the top of the column on your palette cool blues below the cool blue column, warm reds below the warm red column and apply in a broad band on your canvas. Back to your palette, add white to your colour and mix it in the column below the first colour. Still life drawing Still Life drawing is literally creating a two dimensional image of inanimate objects. Various media are used to emphasize a skill or topic. Still Life drawings created as preliminary studies for paintings are typically pencil, pastels, or pen and ink. A still life drawing is created by placing objects in a design setting that utilizes available light and contrasts in shapes in an eye pleasing manner. The artist sketches the basic shapes first and continues to fill in details and or color until the desired outcome is achieved.


What Is Time Signature 3 4? The time signature or meter 3 4 is show in the music as a 3 above a 4. This comes before the music starts but after the clef and key signature. The 3 stands for 3 beats per measure and the 4 tells us that each beat is a quarter note. This means that the notes in each measure will add to three quarter notes. See if you can spot the three quarter note beats in this line of music. Now here it is with the beats labelled. Master Time Signatures With Our Free Mini Course Get 10 video lessons complete with worksheets and quiz to learn about simple, compound and irregular meters. How To Count In 3 4 3 4, like all meters, has a distinctive feel to it. We count 3 4 as 1..2 3 .1 2 .3 and you can see this on the music below. These three quarter-note beats are counted regardless of how those beats are divided up. Here is a piece by Chopin. It contains more complex rhythms with a variety of note lengths, however this piece would still counted with three quarter-note beat. Can you spot where each beat falls? Now here it is with the beats added. 3 4 Is A Simple, Triple Time Signature There are three broad types of time signature: simple, compound and irregular. Simple time signatures have beats that divide into two. Compound time signatures have beats that divide into three and irregular time signatures have a mixture of beats. In time signature 3 4 each beat is a quarter note and therefore can be divided into TWO eighth notes. This makes 3 4 a Simple Time Signature. It is a Triple time signature because there areThe notes below show how each quarter note beat in 3 4 time can be divided into two eight notes. Athletics and Montage Athletics is a sport that includes a number of events involving running, jumping, throwing or walking. Middle distance races. Middle distance race starts with a standing start, athletes start from an upright, standing position the crouch forward with one foot about 18 inches behind the other. The leading foot and shoulder both point forward. The upper body should not be twisted. Strategies applied by middle distance runners during a race: Pacing Stride length Recovery. Pacing rate at which an athlete runs.


The upper body should not be twisted. Strategies applied by middle distance runners during a race: Pacing Stride length Recovery. Pacing rate at which an athlete runs. An athlete knows how long it takes him or her to cover a certain distance. Stride length it is the uniform length of steps taken during running. Recovery - It is a stop, walk or slow jog made after striding. It helps an athlete to catch a breath and relax before striding again which helps in developing speed and running skills. Middle-distance running events are track races longer than sprints, up to 3000 metres. The standard middle distances are the 800 metres, 1500 metres and mile run, although the 3000 metres may also be classified as a middle-distance even MONTAGE is the production of a rapid succession of images in a motion picture to illustrate an association of idea. Photomontage. Photomontage is the process and the result of making a composite photograph by cutting, gluing, rearranging and overlapping two or more photographs into a new image. It is assembly of images that relate to each other in some way to create a single work or part of a work of art. Photomontage is an image constructed from collaged photographs. Characteristics shown in photomontage. Superimposition-combine two images to create something new. Use of pictures. Emphasis on shape. MELODY Composing melody A melody is a collection of musical tones that are grouped together as a single entity. Most compositions consist of multiple melodies working in conjunction with one another. In a rock band, the vocalist, guitarist, keyboardist, and bassist are all playing melodies on their respective instruments. The basic process of melody writing is to create a musical sequence of notes, often referred to as a line, that's interesting and pleasing to the listener. This is done by using pitch notes and rhythm beats . Melodies are most often built using scales or modes. There are a few ways to extend a melody, depending on the style of music and the desired effect. Here are a few methods that may be helpful: Repeat and vary the melody. Repeat the melody multiple times, with slight variations each time. This can create a sense of familiarity and build tension. Add a countermelody. Introduce a new melody that complements the original melody.


This can create a sense of familiarity and build tension. Add a countermelody. Introduce a new melody that complements the original melody. This can create a sense of harmony and depth. Use harmonic progression. Change the chords that the melody is played over. This can create a sense of movement and tension. Add a coda. Add a section at the end of the melody that provides a sense of closure. NETBAL Netball is a ball sport played on a rectangular court by two teams of seven players. The primary objective is to shoot a ball through the defender's goal ring while preventing the opposing team from shooting through their own goal ring. Passes in netball 1. Chest pass in Net ball. Chest pass is a way of throwing the ball to a teammate where the ball is released and received at the chest level. The pass is usually used when the teammates are not far from each other. Learning points for the chest pass. 1. Grip Spread your fingers out behind the ball to form a W formation, holding it at chest height with your elbows out in front of you. 2. Stance. Face the direction you want the ball to go in. Step forwards with your dominant foot as you begin to straighten your arms. 3. Execution of the pass. Push the ball away from your body at chest height by powerfully extending the arms forwards and flicking the wrists. Follow through with the arms, wrists, hands and fingers in the direction of the throw. Chest pass drills Dodging and marking in Netball. Dodging is a technique used to counter the marking attempts. It is applied by members of the team in control of the ball. The player being marked attempts to get free from the marker and move into space to receive a pass. It may involve changing pace and use of deceptive body actions to put the marking player off balance. Deceptive means misleading or trickiness while off-balance means not steady or stable. Intercept means block a pass or prevent it from reaching destination or to block something from happening. Body movements used by a player when dodging an opponent. Using bending or leaning movements with the body trunk to the left or right or left once or repeatedly. Sprinting off from the marker. Sprinting and stopping. Extending the left or right arm away from the opponent.


Sprinting off from the marker. Sprinting and stopping. Extending the left or right arm away from the opponent. Marking is a technique used by a team that is not in possession of the ball to prevent an opponent from receiving a pass. The intention is to obstruct passes made by the team in control of the ball. A player can mark an opponent in possession of the ball or an opponent without the ball. Marking opponent with the ball. Marking opponent without the ball. Body movements used by a player when marking an opponent. Standing in front of the player being marked. Standing beside the player being marked. Raising hands up or to the side to reach the path of the ball. Stepping forward, or sideways while avoiding any obstruction. Things to learn when dodging and marking stance. Marking a player without the ball. Establish the basic stance for marking with body weight on your toes. Take a position slightly in front of the player you intend to mark. Be on your toes, with knees slightly bent, ready to catch the ball or move in the direction of the opponent. The hands should be on the side of the body. React quickly when the opponent being marked makes any movement, move in the direction of the opponent using short steps, shuffle sideways without crossing the feet. Focus on both the ball and the player and forth from one place to another. Activity. Guided by the teacherDemonstrate Basic stance for dodging, marking, body movement for dodging and marking. Footwork in Netball. Landing techniques. In netball, the ball is played using hands. During play, the players may: Run to doge an opponent or to reach a ball. Jump to catch a high ball or rebound from the ring. Stop the running action suddenly to dodge an opponent or avoid getting to an offside position. Land on the floor or the ground as dedicated by the laws of gravity in integrated science and as guided by the law of the game. However, players need to land safely for safety and healthy living. There are two landing techniques in Netball: The double foot landing. Single foot landing. Pivoting.