Advantages High production from the land hence high economic gains Allows foreigners to use and develop land No land disputes Create employment for the local people Generate government revenue through taxation. Disadvantages Individuals own large pieces of land while others are landless Large areas of land may be left underdeveloped. Foreigners may repatriate profit to their countries. Landlordism and tenancy The arrangement here involves the ownership of land by one individual or group of individuals landlord who lease it to another individual tenant . A legal lease specifies the length of time during which the tenure is operative; and that serves as a security of tenure to the tenant. The efficiency of production in this arrangement is greatly affected by the length of lease, its legal backing and rent payable. Advantages A person without land can get a chance to use land. A landlord who cannot operate the land, for any reason, can still earn income by leasing it to a needy tenant. It is a flexible arrangement; that is, it allows room for change of production plans should need arise. Security of tenure gives the tenant incentive to invest depending on the length of tenure. Disadvantages Poor land use and low production if the tenant does not have enough funds to improve on land. Tenants cannot produce long term crops, Landlords can exploit the tenants by overcharging. Lack of incentives to improve land by the tenants since it does not belong to them. Land Reforms Definition Land reform is any organized action designed to improve the structure of land tenure and land use. Forms of Land Reform Land Consolidation This means bringing or putting together, into one piece; fragmented parcels or pieces of land scattered over a large area. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 34 The objective of land consolidation are : To save on time spent while moving from one piece of land to another. To facilitate effective and efficient farm planning. To create an incentive among land operators to invest on and develop land. To facilitate mechanization and improve production through efficiency. To improve level of production through effective supervision of the labour force and sound farming methods, Land Fragmentation and Sub-division This is the subdividing of a large piece of land into smaller portions. Sometimes it becomes necessary to sub-divide land for the following reasons: To sell part of the land.


To facilitate mechanization and improve production through efficiency. To improve level of production through effective supervision of the labour force and sound farming methods, Land Fragmentation and Sub-division This is the subdividing of a large piece of land into smaller portions. Sometimes it becomes necessary to sub-divide land for the following reasons: To sell part of the land. The parent may wish to subdivide and distribute his land among the sons, daughters and other dependants. The government may decide to subdivide large farms in order to settle landless citizens. Land Adjudication and Registration Land adjudication involves; Establishing the legitimate ownership, Measurements to make permanent boundaries Recording of land details. Once land has been adjudicated, and any disputes concerning the same land are settled, It is then registered in the "Register of Land". And the owner is issued with a land title deed or certificate of legal ownership. Importance of land title deed The legal owner of the land has security of tenure and hence an incentive to invest and improve productivity. A farmer can mortgage the land by offering land title certificate as a security to loaning agencies to secure capital to finance development projects. If a farmer who cannot operate the farm, he can still earn income from it by leasing it. Disputes concerning land boundaries and or land ownership no longer arise. Land Settlement and Resettlement Definition Land settlement means the occupation of land which was previously uninhabited. Land resettlement, on the other hand, is the transfer of people from an already densely populated area to a sparsely populated one. Objectives To settle the landless citizens. To relieve population pressure in densely populated areas. To increase or promote agricultural productivity by farming on land that was previously unused or lying idle. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 35 To create self-employment thus improving the living standards. Land reclamation, especially by creating tsetse fly-barriers. Soil and Water Conservation Introduction Soil and water are two very important natural resources in farming. They should therefore be well maintained and used without wastage to sustain continuous production. Water loss during the rainy season should be prevented and excess water conserved for use during scarcity. Soil erosion must be controlled at whatever cost if soil is to be conserved.


They should therefore be well maintained and used without wastage to sustain continuous production. Water loss during the rainy season should be prevented and excess water conserved for use during scarcity. Soil erosion must be controlled at whatever cost if soil is to be conserved. Soil Erosion It is the removal and carrying away of the top soil by the action of water or wind. Factors Influencing Soil Erosion Amount and intensity of rainfall. The steeper the land the higher the velocity of surface runoff. The higher the velocity of surface runoff the greater is its erosive power effect. Type of soil for example sandy soils are more easily detached and carried away than clayey soils. Soil depth; The deeper the soil, the longer it takes to be saturated with water. Land use: Overstocking leads to bareness of the land and looseness of the soil. Deforestation - indiscriminate removal of trees leads to exposure of soil to heavy rainfall and high temperatures. Indiscriminate burning of vegetation exposes the soil to erosive agents. Clean weeding leaves the soil bare. Ploughing along the slope. Monoculture or continuous cultivation. Ground cover Trees act as windbreakers. Roots of vegetation cover hold the soil particles together. Leaf fall act as mulch which reduces erosion. Leaves of vegetation cover intercepts raindrops reducing their erosive power. Agents of Erosion Water - moving water has erosive power. Wind - wind carries away soil. Human beings - through man's activities such as cultivation and mining. Animals - through overgrazing and creating footpaths where soil erosion takes place. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 36 Types of Erosion Raindrop splash - displacement of the soil caused by raindrops. Sheet - uniform removal of soil in thin layers from flat or gently sloping areas. Rill - removal of soil from small bur well defined channels or rills. Gulley - removal of soil from channels which become progressively deeper and wider. Riverbank Erosion - removal of soil along river banks by the river water. Solifluction - gravitational flow of soil saturated with water.


Gulley - removal of soil from channels which become progressively deeper and wider. Riverbank Erosion - removal of soil along river banks by the river water. Solifluction - gravitational flow of soil saturated with water. Land slides - mass movement of rock debris and soil down a slope, For example; Slip movement of earth or rock masses for a short distance. Debris slide - materials move at a greater speed. Debris fall - movement of materials debris along vertical cliff. Rock fall - movement of rock down a very steep slope. Rock slides - mass of rock materials that slide along a bedding plate, a joint or a fault face. Soil Erosion Control Measures Soil conservation measures can be classified into: Biological or cultural control Physical or structural control Biological or Cultural Control Measures These measures are applicable where land slope is between 2-12 . Grass strips filter strips; These are narrow uncultivated strips along the contour left between cultivated strips. Cover cropping ; The establishment of a crop that spreads out over the surface of the soil to provide it with a cover. Contour farming ; Carrying out all land operations along the contour. Mulching ; Covering of the soil with either organic or synthetic materials. Proper cropping systems such as: Crop rotation Correct spacing Inter-cropping Ridging furrowing Strip cropping Controlled grazing; Proper stocking rate, rotational grazing. Strip cropping; Growing crops which give little ground cover in alternate strips with crops such as beans which have a good ground cover. Afforestation re-afforestation. Afforestation - growing of trees where non-existed. Re-afforestation - growing of trees where they have been cut down. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 37 Agroforestry - land use that involves the growing of trees in combination with crops and pastures on the same piece of land. Physical or Structural Control Measures These are soil and water conservation measures which involve mechanical constructions on the earth. They are used in areas of moderate slope between 13-55 . They include: Trash or stone lines; These are rows of heaped crop' residues or stones made along the contours.


Physical or Structural Control Measures These are soil and water conservation measures which involve mechanical constructions on the earth. They are used in areas of moderate slope between 13-55 . They include: Trash or stone lines; These are rows of heaped crop' residues or stones made along the contours. Filter strips; It involves the growing of an open crop in the upper side of the slope followed by a dense crop to reduce speed of water. This increases infiltration. Terraces; Are structures constructed across a slope to reduce the length of a slope thus reducing run-off. Bench terraces; Are constructed where the slope is 35-55 . Tree crops are suitable for such areas. Importance of a Bench Terrace: - Reduces slope of the land. Conserves soil moisture. Better retention of soil fertility. Narrow based terraces Cannot allow cultivation by machines. Broad based terraces - Is wide enough to allow cultivation by machines. Graded terraces: Have a drainage channel to lead off excess water to a vegetated place. They should be about 100m in length. Level terraces: Have no outlet channels, The aim is to have water infiltrating, Hence no water can flow from the ends of the terrace. Fanya juu: A ridge made by digging a channel and throwing the soil uphill. Fanya chini: In this case the soil is heaped on the lower side of the channel. Bunds: heaps of soil earth made along the contour. Cutoff drains: An open trench with an embankment on the lower side into which water from the farm drains. Water from the trench should be discharged into; Natural waterways, Artificial waterways, Rocky ground For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 38 Grassland Gabion Porous dams: Galvanized wire mesh boxes filled with stones which are built across slopes and gullies. Dams and reservoirs ; Dams - barriers built across a river waterway to hold and store water. It reduces speed of runoff. Reservoirs - these are large storage tanks.


Dams and reservoirs ; Dams - barriers built across a river waterway to hold and store water. It reduces speed of runoff. Reservoirs - these are large storage tanks. Ridging - heaps of soil to reduce the speed of water, They retain the water for some time. Water Harvesting Methods Water harvesting and storage should be done during the rainy seasons to avoid wastage. This should be done using the following methods: Roof catchment - trapping and collection of rain water from roof tops. Rock catchment - water is harvested by constructing a barrier on the lower side of a large impervious rock to trap surface runoff from the rock. Weirs and dams. Dam - a barrier constructed across a river or a dry valley so that it can hold water. Weirs - barriers constructed across a river or a stream to raise the water level and still allow water to flow over it. Ponds - water retention excavations' made to hold excess surface water. Retention ditches level terraces.-These are terraces constructed with blocked ends to retain water. Micro-Catchments A system of harvesting limited rainfall and storing the water in the ground for use by the planted crops. Types of Microcatchments; Triangular V-shaped Negarims; V-shaped bunds measuring 25cm Are built with soil from the excavated planting holes to direct runoff water towards the basin area around the base of each plant Semi-circular bunds; Formed around the growing plant to hold water around the plant. Trapezoidal bunds; Trapezoidal shaped bunds, which enclose a large area where the crops are grown. Contour bunds furrows ; These are furrows made along the contours between the rows of crops where agroforestry trees are intercropped with annual crops. Planting holes pits ; These are extra large planting holes made and filled with dry plant materials before filling in with soil. Use of Micro-Catchments For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 39 Slow down the speed of surface runoff. Used during landscaping of the compound, parks and roadside nest areas. Reclamation of land for food crop in dry areas. Water collected and stored can be used for irrigation Afforestation in dry areas.


Weeds lower the quality of pasture for example: Tickberry Lantana camara Nut grass Cyperus rotundus , Manyatta grass Eleusine jaegeri Some weeds irritate workers thus reducing the efficiency in which they are controlled for example: Double thorn Oxygonum sinuatum , Stinging nettle Urtica massaica , Devil's horse whip Achyranthes aspera . Factors Contributing to the Competitive Ability of Weeds For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 40 They produce large quantities of seeds for example pigweed and black jack. Their seeds remain viable in the soil for a long time awaiting conducive germination conditions. They have effective seed dispersal mechanisms. Some weeds propagate by means of elaborate underground storage structures. They are efficient in utilizing little moisture, nutrients and sunlight. Some have short life cycles. They have elaborate root systems for supporting the plant and absorbing nutrients and water. Weed Classification It is based on: Life cycles for example: Annuals - complete their life cycle in only one season. Biennuals - complete their life cycles in two seasons only. Perennials - complete their life cycle in more than two seasons. Morphology - leaf formation such as size, shape and venation. Broad leaved weeds for example black jack, lantana, pig weed, oxalis and others. Narrow leaved weeds for example couch grass, setaria, nut-grass, manyatta grass and others. Habitat - some weeds are terrestrial grow on land while others are aquatic grow on aquatic marine conditions . Weed Identification Weeds are identified by their common individual names and botanical names. They are named according to specific features or according to person who identified them. Common Name Botanical Name Black Jack Bidens pilosa Mexican marigold Tagetes minuta 0xalislsorrel ..Oxalis spp.


Weed Identification Weeds are identified by their common individual names and botanical names. They are named according to specific features or according to person who identified them. Common Name Botanical Name Black Jack Bidens pilosa Mexican marigold Tagetes minuta 0xalislsorrel ..Oxalis spp. Double thorn Oxygonum sinuatum Thorn apple ..Datura stramonium Couch grass ..Digitaria scalarum Nut grass ..Cyperus rotundus Wandering Jew Commelina bengalensis Sow thistle Sonchus ole race us Devil's horsewhip .Achyranthes aspera Macdonald's eye Gallant soldier. Gallinsoga parviflora Sodom apple .Solanum incanum Black night shade ..Solanum nigrum Chinese lantern . Nicandra physalodes Bracken fern ..Pteridium aquillium For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 41 Love grass Bristly foxtail .Setaria verticillata Cleavers Gallium spurium Stinging Nettle ..Urtica massaica Fat hen Goose foot ...Chenopodium spp. Rape weed Brassica nap us Wild oats ...Avena fatua Lantana Tick berry Lantana camara Water hyacinth .Eichhornia crassipes Striga Witch weed Striga hermontheca Creeping indigo .Indigofera spicata Weed Control Methods The methods of weed control determined by: The weed being controlled. Weather conditions. Capital availability. Effect on environment. METHODS OF WEED CONTROL INCLUDE: Chemical Weed Control The use of chemicals known as herbicides to control weeds.


Capital availability. Effect on environment. METHODS OF WEED CONTROL INCLUDE: Chemical Weed Control The use of chemicals known as herbicides to control weeds. Classification of Herbicides Based on: Formulation - the physical form of the herbicides for example: Liquids Wettable powders Emulsion Dust Time of Application Pre-emergence - applied before the planted crop germinates. Post emergence - applied after the planted crop germinates. Selectivity Selective. Non selective. Mode of Action Contact - herbicides that kill only the parts of the plant which it comes into contact. Translocated systemic herbicides that will kill the whole plant even if it comes into contact with only a small part of it. Methods of Herbicide Application Spraying - application of solutions. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 42 Dusting - application of dusts. Fumigation - application of fumigants into the soil. Safety Measures in the Use of Chemicals Read manufacturer's instructions and follow them. Wear protective clothing such as overalls, breathing mask, gloves and boots. Avoid inhaling the herbicides. Wash thoroughly after handling chemicals. Do not blow or such blocked nozzles. Avoid herbicide drift to unintended crops and other plants. Avoid herbicide drift to livestock feed and water. Avoid spilling herbicides in pastures and fodder crops. Dispose off the empty containers properly for example burying them in the soil. Do not wash spraying equipment in water sources used by animals and human beings. Store chemicals in a safe place. Wash the spraying equipment thoroughly. Sink left over chemicals into the soil after the day's work. Advantages of Chemical Weed Control It is less laborious. Effective in the control of difficult weeds such as couch grass and sedges. It does not disturb crop roots and other underground structures. It makes the control of weeds in certain crop easier. It is efficient in both wet and dry conditions. It does not destroy soil structure. Cheaper in large scale production than the use of manual or mechanical cultivation. Disadvantages of Chemical Weed Control It requires skilled labour in mixing and application. Cause environmental pollution. Herbicides have long residual effects which may interfere with future crops.


Disadvantages of Chemical Weed Control It requires skilled labour in mixing and application. Cause environmental pollution. Herbicides have long residual effects which may interfere with future crops. It is very expensive. Mechanical Weed Control It involves the following operations: Tillage Cultivation This is the opening and loosening up of the soil. It can be done by hand tools or tractor drawn implements. Advantages Cheap in small scale production. Increases water and air infiltration into the soil. Incorporates crops residues into the soil. The earthing-up done during tillage encourages root growth. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 43 Disadvantages If done repeatedly it destroys soil structure. It is laborious and expensive in large scale production. It may not effectively control weeds. It may lead to soil erosion and loss of soil moisture. Damage crop roots. Slashing Mowing Mechanical removal of shoots from weeds. It is effective in the control of annual weeds. Uprooting It is done when the crops are too close To allow mechanical cultivation or where weeds are scattered. Cultural Weed Control It involves the following practices: Mulching. Cover cropping. Crop rotation. Timely planting. Use of clean seed planting materials. Proper spacing. Proper seedbed preparation. Flooding. Biological Weed Control The use of living organisms to control weeds. Examples are: Use of livestock to graze and control growth of weeds especially in plantations. Use of weed eating fish to control aquatic weeds. Use of moths to control cactus. Limitations: the method is not reliable. Legislative Weed Control Quarantine It involves government laws and regulations which prevent the introduction and spread of foreign weeds in a country or an area. Done by KEPHIS. Limitations: Only samples are checked while the bulk of the materials may have some weed seeds. Crop Pests and Diseases For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 44 Introduction Crop pests and diseases lead to high losses in crop production hence efficient control measures are needed. Proper control measures require the farmers to be able to; Identify these organisms, Know their life cycles, feeding habits The damage they cause to crops.


Pests of grains attack the crops when the grains are formed. Field and Storage Pests Some pests attack the crops while in the field. Other pests attack the produce after it has been harvested and stored. Identification of Common Pests Name of Pest Crop Attacked Damage Done Control Measures Armyworms Cereal crops Defoliate the i Early planting Spodoptera Sugar cane whole plant ii Use of effective insecticides exempta iii Grasses Cut worms Young seedlings Cut the seedlings i Early planting Agrotis Spp. At the stem base ii Use of soil applied insecticides fumigants iii Flood irrigation Boll worms Cotton, Eat and destroy i Crop rotation Heliathis migera citrus, maize, the fruits and ii Field hygiene beans, millet, seeds iii Spraying with insecticides For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 45 legumes iv early planting Maize stalk borer Maize sorghum Destruction of the i Early planting Busseola fusca stem and young ii Field hygiene and growing tissues iii Crop rotation Chilo partellus iv Use of stalk borer dust. Loopers Coffee Make windows in i Use of effective Ascotis selena ria crop leaves ii Use of parasitic wasps, and chameleons Leaf Miner Coffee Make mines in Use of parasitic wasps l Leucoptera the leaves enemies meyricki and L. reducing ii Use of effective caffeina photosynthetic area. Stainers Cotton Stain the cotton Use of parasitic tachinid fl Dysdercus spp. Lint reducing Spraying with insecticides. Quality Control alternate hosts. Crop rotation Aphids Several crops i Transmit Natural enemies for Aphis spp. As citrus, maize, viral diseases. Lady birds cotton, beans. Ii Suck out ii Overhead irrigation cabbages and sap leading iii Use of insecticides others to stunted growth. Other Crop Pests Include: Mealy bugs - coffee Thrips - coffee Beetles - field and storage pests. Birds - field pests - cereals and fruits.


Trap cropping: These are crops which attract pests diverting them from the main crop. The trap crop is grown together with the main crop. Crop rotation: It breaks the life cycle of the pest. Planting resistant varieties: These are plants with natural protective mechanisms against pest for example hairy cotton against jassid bugs, goose necked sorghum against birds, high tillering in sorghum against shoot fly. Field hygiene: This includes rogueing and removal of crop residues which harbour pests from field. Alterations of environmental conditions, such as, creating a microclimate which is not conducive to pests for example open pruning in coffee. Crop nutrition: application of fertilizers and manures to make the crop strong and able to escape pest attacks. Destruction of alternate hosts, for example, weeds like mallow which harbour cotton stainers. Use of clean planting materials. This helps to prevent introduction of crop pests. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 47 Proper spacing: if well spaced some pests find it difficult to move from one plant to another. Use of organic manure, for example, farmyard manure discourages eel worms nematodes . Chemical Control Chemicals used to control pests are known as pesticides. Pesticides are administered through dusting, spraying or fumigating. Classification of Pesticides: Pesticides are classified on the basis of: Mode of Entry Stomach - ingested by the pest together with the crop materials. Contact - absorbed through the body tissues. Fumigants - through the breathing mechanism. Systemic - translocated to all parts. Mode of Action Respiratory poisons - interfere with breathing mechanisms. Coagulants - cause the blood of the pest to coagulate. Neurotoxins - act on the nervous system. Protoplasmic poisons - cause the cells to disintegrate. Target Pests Insecticides - kill insect pests Molluscicides - kill snails and slugs. Rodenticides - kill rodents. Nematocides - kill nematodes. Formulation . Dusts, granules and powders Emulsifiable concentrates. Miscible liquids. Wettable powders. Fumigants. Factors That Affect the Efficiency of Pesticides Concentration of the pesticides.


Wettable powders. Fumigants. Factors That Affect the Efficiency of Pesticides Concentration of the pesticides. Weather conditions at the time of application. Timing of application - efficiency is high if applied when the pest is most susceptible. Persistence of the pesticide having long residual effect in the soil. Resistance of the pests. Advantages of Chemical Pest Control Faster Immediate results are achieved. Low labour requirements. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 48 Disadvantages of Chemical Pest Control Expensive to buy. Cause pollution to the environment. Require skilled labour to apply. Some pesticides may kill beneficial organisms and predators. Some target pests may build up resistance. Mechanical Pest Control Physical This involves the killing of the pests using physical methods. Or creating physical barriers to prevent pests from getting into contact with the crops . Example: Flooding irrigation; for example, moles are suffocated through flooding. Use of lethal temperatures: either too cold or too hot. Suffocation; commonly used in grain storage bins by being made air tight. Trapping and killing, for example, rats. Creation of physical barriers, such as, rat bafflers, sticky materials on tree trunks. Proper drying: this makes them too hard to be destroyed by pests. Scaring devices especially in rice plantations to control birds. Use of explosives thrown at breeding places of birds to kill or scare them away. Biological Pest Control It involves the use of living organisms to reduce the pest population. Predator Target Pest Parasitic wasp-------------------White fly in citrus, boll worms, stalk borers Birds--------------------------------- Crickets, locusts, caterpillar llars. Lady Bird --------------------------Aphids Trachnid flies -------------------cotton stainer Praying mantis-----------------giant loppers Majimoto ants -----------------scales Cats ----------------------------------moles,rats,mice Brachonid wasps-------------mealy bugs Chicken ---------------cotton stainer, larvae of beetles, grasshoppers, crickets Advantages Cheap No environmental pollution Saves on labour. Disadvantages Takes too long to get the correct agent Difficult to control the pest effectively. Integrated Pest Management It is a new method which involves the combination of the methods mentioned above.


Lady Bird --------------------------Aphids Trachnid flies -------------------cotton stainer Praying mantis-----------------giant loppers Majimoto ants -----------------scales Cats ----------------------------------moles,rats,mice Brachonid wasps-------------mealy bugs Chicken ---------------cotton stainer, larvae of beetles, grasshoppers, crickets Advantages Cheap No environmental pollution Saves on labour. Disadvantages Takes too long to get the correct agent Difficult to control the pest effectively. Integrated Pest Management It is a new method which involves the combination of the methods mentioned above. The aim is to have least hazards to the user and to the environment. Example, attractant-pheromones are used to attract pests to one place where they are sprayed and eradicated. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 49 Legislative Method Quarantine Legislative mearsures of pest control are effected by the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service KEPHIS through seed inspection. Crop Disease And Their Control A disease is any deviation from the normal performance or functions. A plant disease is any harmful physiological disorder in a plant caused by pathogenic agents such as virus, bacteria, fungi. The study of plant disease is called plant pathology. Economic importance of crop diseases They lower crop yield They reduce the quality of the produce thus reducing their market value They cause food poisoning. E.g ergot in wheat, afflatoxin in grain crops by fungus. They reduce photosynthetic area of the plant. Classification and identification of plant disease Plant disease are classified according to their causal agents; Fungal diseases; Fungi are non-green plant-like. Some are parasitic and others are saprophytic. Parasitic fungi divided into; Obligate parasites- those that depend on other living organisms for food. Falcultative parasites-those that are able to live on both the living and dead tissues.


Fusarium ii. Yellowing and shedding oxysporum of leaves. Iii. Wilting of the plant. Black arm Cotton i. Small round spots on the i. Field hygiene. Anthomonas cotyledons of young ii. Use of certified seeds. Malvacearum seedlings. Ii. The spots elongate to form black lesions on the stem. Bacterial wilt Tomatoes and Uniform. Wilting of the whole i. Use of certified seeds. Pseudomonas potatoes plant even with enough ii. Crop rotation. Solanacearum water. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 51 Viral Diseases Viruses are small living organisms which can only be seen under a very powerful electronic microscope. Viruses interfere with photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration and nitrogen utilization Symptoms of Viral Infection Leaf chlorosis. Leaf curling. Mosaic light green or yellow patches . Malformation distortion of plant parts. Rosettes; Development of abnormally short internode. Transmission Through the use of infected vegetative materials and insect vectors like aphids, mealybugs and leafhoppers. Viral diseases Disease Cause crops Attacked Symptoms of Attack Control Measures Ratton stunting Sugar cane Red discoloration on the vascular Use of clean materials. Bundles. Treatment of seed canes. Maize streak Maize Yellow stripes alternating with Control leaf hopper. Green, parallel to the midrib. Ii. Use if certified seeds. Iii. Field sanitation. Greening Citrus i. Yellow mottling of the leaves. I, Use of clean tools when disease Die back. Budding. Iii. Premature leaf fall. Control of insect vectors. Leaf mosaic Suzgar cane, i. Yellow mottling. Control of aphids. Cassava. Sweet Necrosis of stem. Ii. Use of clean materials. Potatoes. Seed treatment. Tristeza Citrus Dwarfing of i. Stripping affected fruits. Die back. Ii. Use of clean equipment of budding. Other Causes of Crop Diseases Flooding forming ammonia which is poisonous to the crops causing a burning effect on leaves. Chemicals: some may be toxic. Poor weather: Extremes of day and night temperatures. Stress: such as irregular watering as in tomato blossom end rot. Control of Crop Diseases Cultural method: This involves use of Healthy planting materials.


Poor weather: Extremes of day and night temperatures. Stress: such as irregular watering as in tomato blossom end rot. Control of Crop Diseases Cultural method: This involves use of Healthy planting materials. Practicing field hygiene. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 52 Proper seedbed preparation. Proper spacing. Heat treatment of the planting materials for example sugar cane. Proper drying of cereals and pulses to 13 M.C. Growing disease resistant varieties. Legislative Method Involves the imposing of regulations and laws especially in case of disease outbreaks to prevent the introduction and spread of diseases. Chemical Control Used as a last resort. Chemical control measures include: Seed dressing before planting. Soil fumigation to control soil borne diseases. Spraying: application of fungicides. Crop Production VI Field Practices II Introduction There are many crops cultivated in Kenya. These crops are grown for various uses and require different ecological conditions. Definitions: Hybrids - These are crop varieties developed by crossing two pure lines. Composites - These are crop varieties developed through repeated mass selection. Cultivars - these are varieties of crops which are cultivated in a given area. Maize Main growing areas: Trans-Nzoia, Nakuru, Uasin Gishu, Laikipia districts and others. Ecological Requirements Altitude: Upto 2000m above sea level. Temperature: About 25 C Soils: Freely draining, fertile loam soils. Rainfall: 750-12S0rnm critical at silking and pollination stage. Varieties For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 53 High altitude areas: Hybrids 611, 613 and 614C. Medium altitude areas: 511,512,622 and 632. Marginal rainfall areas: Katumani composite and Makueni composite. Coast regions: Coast composite and Katumani composite. Seedbed Preparation Ploughing should be deep and done during the dry season to eradicate weeds. Require medium tilth. Plant spacing 75-90cm x 20-30cm. Planting done at the onset of the rains. This helps to reduce pest attack. Dry planting in areas with inadequate rainfall is necessary.


Planting done at the onset of the rains. This helps to reduce pest attack. Dry planting in areas with inadequate rainfall is necessary. Field Maintenance: Apply phosphatic fertilizer during planting at a rate of 120kg ha P2O5 Also nitrogenous fertilizers as top dress at the rate of 200kg of ASN or CAN. Control weeds by cultivation, use of appropriate herbicides, uprooting, slashing and mulching. Pest Control Maize Stalk Borer: Nature of damage: Boring the leaves causing windowing effect, boring the stems and cobs. Control: Destruction of previous years crop residue, closed season and apply chemicals Maize Weevils: it is a storage pest. Damage: Bores holes into the maize grains, eating the contents. Control: Proper hygiene and sanitation in the stores. Use of chemicals such as Actellic Super. Disease Control: Rust Cause: Fungus. Symptoms: Red or brown pustules on the. Leaves. Control: Plant resistant varieties and crop rotation. Smuts Cause: Fungus Symptoms: Black sooty mass of spores on maize heads or cobs ear . Control: Crop rotation, growing resistant varieties and destruction of affected plant parts. Maize Streak Virus For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 54 Cause: Virus Symptoms: Yellow longitudinal stripes parallel to the midrib. Control: Certified seed, early planting and rogueing. Harvesting Harvest the crop 3-9 months after planting depending on variety. Maize stalks are cut and stocked in the field. Cobs removed by hand. For large scale harvesting, combined harvesters are used. Yields about 3,OOOkg and 4500kg ha. Bulrush Millet Areas where grown: Lower areas of Kirinyaga, Embu, Meru, Parts of Machakos Kerio Valley. Ecological Requirements Altitude: Does well in areas below 1200m. Rainfall: 500-600mrn per annum. Soils: Light sandy soils.


Ecological Requirements Altitude: Does well in areas below 1200m. Rainfall: 500-600mrn per annum. Soils: Light sandy soils. Varieties: Serere 2A, 3A, 6A, 17, 16 9 Seed Bed Preparations Ploughing of land during the dry season. Soil should be of fine tilth since the seeds are small. Planting: Done at the onset of the rains. Planted by broadcasting and row planting at a spacing of 60cm x 15cm. Field Maintenance: Weeding is done until tillering. Top-dressing is done by use of sulphate of ammonia. Pest Control Birds Nature of Damage: Eats the seeds at milky stage. Control: Bird scaring devices. Disease Control Ergot Cause: Fungus. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 55 Symptoms: Heads become sticky. Control: Use of certified seeds, crop rotation and destruction of affected crops. Downy Mildew Cause: Fungus. Symptoms: Long, whitish lines on the leaves. Control: Crop rotation and field hygiene. Harvesting Done by cutting off the heads. Drying of the heads. Threshing and winnowing of the grains. Stored under well ventilated dry conditions. Yields about 1000kg ha with good management. Finger Millet Areas where grown: Western Kenya and Uganda. Ecological Requirements Altitude: 0-2400m above sea level. Rainfall: 900mm, drought resistant in the early stages. Soils: Free draining fertile soils. Varieties: Serere varieties developed at Serere in Uganda. Ultra lupin 5.18 oats. Land Preparations The seedbed should be thoroughly prepared to a fine tilth due to the small size of the seeds. It also helps to control weeds. Field Operations Planting Finger millet should be planted as early as possible in the season. It is usually broadcasted by hand. If planted in rows, the furrows should be 30-33cm apart and the plants should be thinned to 5cm apart within the rows.


Field Operations Planting Finger millet should be planted as early as possible in the season. It is usually broadcasted by hand. If planted in rows, the furrows should be 30-33cm apart and the plants should be thinned to 5cm apart within the rows. Fertilizer Application Sulphate of ammonia at the rate of 125kg ha is recommended for topdressing finger millet. Weed Control For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 56 Clean seedbed preparation Uprooting Pest Control: Birds are controlled through scaring. Disease Control Head blast: Cause: Fungus Symptoms: Brown spots with grey centres on the leaves and stems below the inflorescence. Control: Use of resistant varieties. Harvesting Individual heads are cut with knives. Heads are dried, threshed and winnowed. Yields 1650kg ha with good management. Sorghum It is grown in Western, northern, Rift Valley, Eastern and some parts of Central Province. Ecological Requirements Altitude: 0-1500m above sea level. Rainfall: 420-630mm. It is drought resistant. Soils: Fairly fertile and well drained soils. Varieties Dobbs variety. Serena variety. Field Operations Planting Broadcasting the seeds on the firmly prepared seedbed. Intercropped with other crops especially maize and beans. Can be planted in pure stands at a spacing of 60cm x 15cm Fertilizer Application Responds well to farmyard manure FYM . Inorganic fertilizers are not commonly used in growing sorghum. Pest Control For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 57 Bird pests: They are the most common sorghum pests. They include quelea, aethiopica Sudan Dioch , weaver birds, starling bird bishop's bird. They are controlled through; killing them using explosives, poison spraying in their breeding places use of flame throwers. Sorghum shoot-fly controlled by early planting, closed season and application of insecticides. Stem borer - control by use of insecticides and field hygiene.


They are controlled through; killing them using explosives, poison spraying in their breeding places use of flame throwers. Sorghum shoot-fly controlled by early planting, closed season and application of insecticides. Stem borer - control by use of insecticides and field hygiene. Disease Control Common sorghum diseases include: Leaf blight Anthracnose. Sooty stripe. Loose smut Head smut Smuts are controlled by seed dressing-while the other diseases are controlled by growing resistant varieties. Harvesting Sorghum is ready for harvesting 3-4 months after planting. Heads are cut off using a sharp knife after which they are sun-dried, threshed, winnowed and stored. Up to 3000kg hectare can be obtained with good management. Beans Grown in all provinces where maize is grown. Ecological Requirements Altitude: 10.00-2100 metres above sea level. Rainfall: Average of 62Smm per annum. Soils: Well drained loamy soils rich in organic matter. Varieties For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 58 Varieties for dry beans: Rose Coco, Mwezi Moja, Canadian Wonder, Wairimu, Haricot, Mwitemania. Variety for canning: Mexican 142. Varieties for French Beans: Primeur, Long Tom, Saza, Master Piece Monel. Seedbed Preparation Land should be prepared early. Primary and secondary cultivation done to control perennial weeds. Seed Selection and Treatment Select wholesome seeds free from damage and wrinkles. Seeds are dressed against bean fly. Seeds should be inoculated with appropriate bacteria none dressed seeds Planting Planted at the onset of the rains. Spacing 30-45cm x 15cm. Apply phosphatic fertilizer during planting time. Plant 2-4 seeds per hole. Field Maintenance Provide sticks for the climbing varieties. Control of weeds through shallow cultivation. Top-dress with nitrogenous fertilizer for example CAN. PestControl Bean-Fly Nature of damage: Feeds on the stems causing swelling at the roots. This results in wilting and death. Control: Dressing of seeds, early planting and spraying with insecticides.


PestControl Bean-Fly Nature of damage: Feeds on the stems causing swelling at the roots. This results in wilting and death. Control: Dressing of seeds, early planting and spraying with insecticides. Bean Bruchid Storage Pest Nature of damage: Make dark circular windows on the grains. Control: Clean stores, fumigation, and seed dressing. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 59 Diseases Control Bean Anthracnose Cause' Fungus Symptoms: Brown or black lesions on the underside of the leaves, pods and stems. Control: Growing resistant varieties, crop rotation, destruction of crop residues and spraying with fungicides. Bean Rust Cause: Fungus Symptoms: Red brown pustules on the leaves. Control: Planting resistant varieties and spraying copper fungicides. Harvesting Done during the dry season for dry beans and when the pods are dry. Threshing and winnowing done. Sorting of rotten, off types and damaged ones. Sold to National Cereals and Produce Board when dry. For French beans, pick the pods when soft and green. Market immediately to avoid shrivelling. Rice Production Areas where grown; Mwea Tabere Irrigation Scheme Ahero Pilot Scheme in Kano plains. Bunyala in Busia. Bura in Tana River. Land Preparation Plots of 0.4 hectare are made with bunds constructed around them. Plots are flooded for four days. Rotavators jembes are used to work the flooded fields on the fifth day. The land is then levelled and allowed to drain. Water Control During land preparation, water level should be about 7.5-10cm. During levelling water level should be 5cm Water is drained off completely for direct sowing. For transplanted rice, water level should be 5cm at transplanting. Water level should be maintained at 1 3 the height of plant until maturity. Water should be allowed to flow slowly through the fields. Old water should be changed every 2- 3 weeks if the flow of water is not possible. Water introduced should always be warm to ensure pollination.


Water should be allowed to flow slowly through the fields. Old water should be changed every 2- 3 weeks if the flow of water is not possible. Water introduced should always be warm to ensure pollination. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 60 Fertilizer Application S.A applied in the nursery. Rate of 25kg SA for every nursery unit of 18.5m x 18.5m. Phosphatic fertilizers broadcasted in the field. Rate of 120kg ha DSP before planting. S.A applied in the field in two splits before and after transplanting at a rate of 250kg ha Flooding in Rice Flood water in rice production is important for the following reasons; It provides good conditions for growth such as high humidity. Kills soil organisms. Prevents denitrification. Weed Control Controlled through flooding. Appropriate herbicides such as propanil and butachlor are also used. Harvesting of Industrial Crops cotton, pyrethrum, sugarcane, coffee and tea. Harvesting of Cotton Stage of harvesting Takes 4 months to mature. Harvest when bolls are dry and fully opened. Method and Procedure In Kenya cotton is picked manually. Sort out grade AR safi from grade BR fifi into separate containers. Precautions Harvest during dry conditions to prevent dirtifying the lint. Avoid use of gunny bags to prevent contamination. Avoid picking leaves. Harvest on weekly basis. Harvesting of Pyrethrum Stage of harvesting Takes 3-4 months to mature. Harvest the flowers with disc florets which have assumed a horizontal position. Methods and Procedure Pyrethrum is picked manually. Flowers are picked by twisting the heads so that no stem is attached. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 61 Precaution Clean harvesting should be done. Avoid picking leaves. Flowers are placed in woven baskets. Overblown flowers are picked and thrown off. Pick the flowers when the dew is dry. Harvested flowers should be taken to the factory the same day. Avoid compaction of flowers in the basket. Harvesting interval, once in two weeks during the wet season and once in a month during the dry season.


Harvested flowers should be taken to the factory the same day. Avoid compaction of flowers in the basket. Harvesting interval, once in two weeks during the wet season and once in a month during the dry season. Harvesting Sugarcane Stage of harvesting; Take 14-20 months for the plant crop to mature and 12-16 months for the ratoon crop. Sampling of cane is done before harvesting to ascertain the correct sugar content. Methods and Procedures Cut the cane at the ground level to avoid yield loss. The green tops are removed from the canes. Harvesting matchet is used for cutting the cane. Precaution Cane should be harvested immediately at maturity to avoid lowering quality. The green tops should be removed immediately after cutting to avoid reduction of sugar content by enzyme invertase. Burnt cane should be harvested immediately after burning to prevent rapid inversion to monosaccharides. The cane should be processed within 48 hours. Harvesting of Coffee Stage of harvesting; Takes 2-4 years depending on the pruning system. Harvest only ripe berries. Methods and Procedures; Hand picking is done so that ripe berries can be selected. During picking hooked sticks can be used to bend the tall trees. Precautions Only the uniformly ripe berries should be picked. Over-ripe and under-ripe berries should be dried and sold as buni. Ripe cherries should be processed on the same day they are picked. Harvesting Tea For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 62 Stage of harvesting It takes 2-4 years for tea to mature depending on the method of bringing young tea into bearing. Method and Procedures Tea harvesting is known as plucking. Fine plucking - 2 leaves and a bud are removed. Coarse plucking - 3 leaves and a bud are removed. A straight fitto straight stick is used to guide the plucker on the plucking table. Tipping is done by cutting off shoots that appear above the fitto. Precautions Plucked tea is placed in woven well ventilated baskets to prevent fermenting before it reaches the factory. The plucked tea should be kept in a cool place awaiting transport. It should be processed within the same day of harvesting.


Precautions Plucked tea is placed in woven well ventilated baskets to prevent fermenting before it reaches the factory. The plucked tea should be kept in a cool place awaiting transport. It should be processed within the same day of harvesting. Harvesting is done on a weekly basis under wet conditions and once after every two weeks under dry conditions. Forage Crops Introduction These are plants which either grow naturally or are cultivated by man to be used for feeding livestock. The term forage crops include pasture and fodder crops. Fodder crops are purposely grown for feeding livestock. They are cut or uprooted when ready Pasture is a ground cover of grass or a mixture of grass and legumes grazed directly or cut and fed to livestock. Classification of Pastures According to type of stand. Either pure Mixed stands. According to ecological zones . Low altitude, Medium altitude, High altitude pastures According to the establishment . Natural Artificial pastures. Examples of grasses Napier, Rhodes, Setaria, Molasses, Congo signal, kikuyu, star, Guatemala, Sudan For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 63 Guinea. Examples of legumes; Lucern, Clover, Desmodium, Glycine, Stylo, Centrio, Pasture Establishment Seedbed Preparation This involves clearing the land, primary and secondary cultivation to a fine tilth because the seeds are small. This is done during the dry season. Selection of planting materials Select seeds of high germination percentage, Free from impurities or buy certified seeds. If vegetative materials are used, select from high yielding, vigorous-growing and healthy plants. Treatment of legume seeds Legume seeds are inoculated with the correct strain of bacteria which fix nitrogen for the crop. Planting This is done at the beginning of the rains Methods of sowing are; Direct sowing, Under sowing, Over-sowing Oversowing This is introduction of a pasture legume in an existing grass pasture. Undersowing The establishment of a pasture in an already existing crop which acts as a cover crop. Seeds rate depend; On purity of seeds, Pasture species Whether pure or mixed stand.


Planting This is done at the beginning of the rains Methods of sowing are; Direct sowing, Under sowing, Over-sowing Oversowing This is introduction of a pasture legume in an existing grass pasture. Undersowing The establishment of a pasture in an already existing crop which acts as a cover crop. Seeds rate depend; On purity of seeds, Pasture species Whether pure or mixed stand. Apply phosphatic fertilizer when planting and later top-dress with nitrogenous fertilizer. Pasture management Re-seeding or gapping; Re-seeding is done if the grass is completely denudated. But if partially, gapping can be done Control of weeds by slashing, uprooting and mowing Fertilization of pastures-done by use of manures and nitrogenous fertilizer. Topping;This is the removal of stemmy fibrous material left behind after grazing. It allows new growth after the rains Control of pests-done by trapping of moles, use of pesticides and biological means. Pasture Utilization Pastures should be utilized at maturity when nutritive value is high. It is utilized through the following methods: For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 64 Direct grazing - this can be done through rotational grazing or herding. Zero grazing - this is where the pasture is cut and fed to the animals in the stalls. Common fodder Crops Edible Cana Altitude: 1500 - 2000m above sea level. Establishment: Young tubers or bulbs are used. Spacing: 1m x 1m. Management: Does well with application of farmyard manure and requires fertile land. Utilization: Tops and tubers are sliced and fed to livestock. Conservation: Bulbs or tubers are sliced and stored. Napier Grass Altitude: 0 - 2000m above sea level. Establishment: Stem cuttings or splits. Spacing: 1 m x 50cm. Management: Apply phosphatic fertilizers during planting time. Top-dress with nitrogenous fertilizers in split application. Clean weeding when young. Cut when 6-8 weeks or 1m-1.5m in height. Utilization: Cut stem is fed to livestock. Conservation: Ensiled when in plenty.


To have sustained supply of feed for livestock throughout the year. Methods Hay Making This is the dehydration of green pastures to a moisture content of 16-20 per cent: Steps in hay making: Cut the crop when the sun is shining. Dry the materials for 1-2 days. Windrow the dry material to allow for further drying. Bale the dry materials for storage. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 66 Store under shed or shelter. Factors Determining Quality of Hay Stage of growth at which forage is harvested. Leaf content of the forage material. Method of handling and curing the hay. Form in which material is fed to livestock. Species of forage used. Amount of foreign materials in forage. Silage Making This is a feed produced by conserving forage in succulent form through the process of fermentation by anaerobic bacteria. Steps in silage making: Cut the crop and transport it to the silo, Material with a high moisture content is wilted in the sun for 4-48 hours before ensiling . Material is chopped to reasonable size pieces before filling in the silo. Spread the chopped material evenly. Check temperature if below 31 C, needs further filling; if above 31 C compaction is necessary. Filling should be complete by the end of the third or fourth day. The silo is covered with 15cm of straw, sawdust then 15cm of soil to make it air and water tight. A trench is dug round the silo to keep off surface water. Factors Affecting the Quality of Silage Maturity stage of the crop when cut. Type of crop. Moisture content of the material Additives such as molasses. Degree of compaction. Size of pieces ensiled. Amount of foreign materials included in the silage. Amount of leaf of the ensiled material. Standing Forage This is forage left in the field to be used during the dry season. Livestock Health III: Diseases Introduction For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 67 Livestock diseases are classified according to causative agents as follows: Protozoan diseases -caused by protozoans.


Control Disinfection of chick house. Prevention of contamination of food and water with droppings. Use of prophylatic drugs for example, Coccidiostats. Trypanosomiasis Nagana Animals attacked: cattle, sheep and goats. Cause: Protozoan of the trypanosome species, Vector-tsetse flies. Symptoms Fever. Dullness. Anorexia loss of appetite. Loss of body condition emaciation. Swollen lymph nodes. Lachrimation which leads to blindness. Diarrhoea Rough coat and sometimes without hair and may be cracked. Swelling in parts of the belly. Drop in milk production in lactating cows. '. Loss of hair at tail end. Anaemia. Abortion may occur in pregnant females. Control Treating animals with trypanocidal drugs. Effective vector Tsetse flies control Confinement of wild animals in game parks. Bacterial Diseases Fowl typhoid For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 69 Foot rot. Contagious abortion. Scours. Blackquarter. Mastitis. Anthrax. Pneumonia. Fowl Typhoid Animals attacked: All domestic birds which include chicken, turkey and ducks. Causes: Bacteria Salmonella gallinarum Symptoms Depression appearing very sick. Respiratory distress. Dullness. Drooping wings. Sleepy eyes. Anaemia resulting in pale and shrunken combs and wattles. Greenish yellow diarrhoea. Control Killing all affected birds and proper disposal of the carcasses. Maintaining hygiene in the poultry house. Ensuring that the house is dry and well ventilated. Obtaining chicks from reliable sources. Treatment using sulphur drugs which are mixed in drinking water or mash. For example: application of Furazolidone Furazol at the rate of 0.04 in mash for 10 continuous days treats the disease effectively. Foot Rot It is also referred to as foul-in-the foot. Animals attacked: cattle, sheep and goats. However, it is most serious in sheep.


Foot Rot It is also referred to as foul-in-the foot. Animals attacked: cattle, sheep and goats. However, it is most serious in sheep. Cause: Bacteria Fusiformis necrophorus and Fusiformis nodosus . Symptoms Animal's foot becomes swollen. Lameness is observed. Pus and rotten smell come out of the hoof. Sheep are found kneeling while grazing when the front feet are affected. Animals spend most of their time lying down when the hind feet are affected. Emaciation due to lack of feeding. Control Hygiene in the living places. Regular foot examination and hoof trimming. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 70 Use of a foot bath of copper sulphate solution at 5-10 solution or formalin at 2-5 solution. Treating wounds on the feet with antiseptics. Affected animals should be given antibiotic injections. Isolation of sick animals from healthy ones. Avoid dampness and muddy conditions. Contagious Abortion Brucellosis Bang's Disease Animals attacked: cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. O It also affects man. Cause: Bacteria o Brucella abortus in cattle, o Brucella suis in pigs o Brucella malitensis in goats and sheep. Symptoms Spontaneous abortion or premature birth. Retained placenta if abortion occurs during the later stages of pregnancy. Infertility in cows while bulls have low libido and inflamed testis also known as orchitis. A yellowish brown, slimy, odourless discharge from the vulva may occur after the abortion. Control Use of artificial insemination. Slaughtering affected animals followed by proper disposal of their carcasses. The attendant to the animals should avoid contact with the aborted foetus. A blood test should be carried out for all breeding animals to detect the infected ones. Hygiene in the animals' houses. Scours white Scours Animals atacked: calves, piglets, lambs and kids. Cause: A bacterium which attacks young animals in the first week of life. Symptoms White or yellowish diarrhoea. Pungent smelling faeces. Fever. Anorexia loss of appetite. Listlessness. Sunken eyes.


Anorexia loss of appetite. Listlessness. Sunken eyes. Undigested milk and mucus with blood spots observed in the faeces. Faecal matter sticks to the hind quarters. Sudden death if no treatment is given. Control Maintaining hygiene in the young animal housing units. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 71 Avoiding dampness on the floor of the house. Fingers of the attendant training calves to drink milk from a bucket must be disinfected. Calving should be carried out in a clean area. Have separate attendants for the infected calves to prevent disease spread. Replacing milk with warm water mixture. Treating affected animals with antibiotics. Black Quarter It is also known as black leg. Animals attacked: All ruminants aged between 8 - 18 months. Cause: Bacteria Clostridium chauvei and Chauvei septicum Symptoms Lameness. Fever. Fast and heavy breathing. Cracking on the swollen parts if touched. Swelling of the affected parts usually the hindquarters, shoulders and chest or back. Dullness. Anorexia. Grunting and grinding of teeth. Animal stops chewing cud. Control Treating with recommended antibiotics. Vaccinating using black quarter vaccine known as blanthax. Burying the carcass deep or burning it completely. Mastitis Is an inflammation of the udder. Animals attacked: Goats, cows, pigs and human beings. Cause: Bacteria Streptococcus spp. Or Staphylococcus spp. Pre-disposing Factors: Incomplete milking. Injuries on the udder and teats. Weak sphincter muscles of the teats allowing free flow of milk. Symptoms Milk is watery, blood stained or clotted. Swollen udder Control Proper milking techniques. Treatment by use of antibiotics. Culling of animals which are often attacked. Anthrax For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 72 Attacks all domestic animals. Cause: Bacteria Bacillus anthracis Symptoms Sudden death. High fever. Grinding of the teeth.


Cause: Bacteria Bacillus anthracis Symptoms Sudden death. High fever. Grinding of the teeth. Pneumonia It is an inflammation of the lungs. Animals attacked: Calves, kids, lambs, piglets and poultry. Cause: Bacteria Mycoplasma mycoides dust worms in the lungs. Symptoms Dullness. Anorexia loss of appetite. Staring coat. Emaciation. Breathing rapidly. Abnormal lung sounds when breathing. Coughing if the chest is pressed. Fluctuating body temperature. Nasal discharge. Control Keeping young animals in warm pens. Proper sanitation. Isolation of the affected animals. Treating using antibiotics. Viral Diseases Rinderpest. Foot and mouth disease FMD . New Castle Fowl pox Gumboro African swine fever Rinderpest Animal attacked: Cattle and wild game. Cause: virus. Symptoms For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 73 Harsh staring coat. Rise in temperature. Eye discharge Lachrimation Diarrhoea and dysentery. Ulcers in the mouth. Foot and Mouth Disease Animals attacked: Cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. Cause: Virus . Symptoms Sharp rise in temperature. Blisters in the mouth, hooves, udder and teats. Loss of appetite. Control Vaccination. Quarantine nursing wounds with disinfectant. New Castle Animals attacked: Poultry. Cause: Virus. Symptoms Difficulties in breathing. Beaks remain wide open and necks are strained. Birds become dull. The birds stand with eyes closed all the time. Anorexia loss of appetite. Nasal discharges which force the birds to shake their heads to clear it. Birds walk with a staggering motion. Paralysis of wings and legs may occur. Birds have their beaks and wings down. Birds produce watery greenish diarrhoea. Birds lay soft shelled eggs. Control Killing all birds and burning them followed by cleaning and disinfecting the houses before bringing in new stock.


Birds produce watery greenish diarrhoea. Birds lay soft shelled eggs. Control Killing all birds and burning them followed by cleaning and disinfecting the houses before bringing in new stock. Vaccination should be done during the first 6 weeks and then 2-3 months later. Quarantine. FowlPox Animals affected: Poultry. Cause: A virus known as avian fox. Symptoms For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 74 Two types of fowl pox with different symptoms. Cutaneous type Diptheritic type The cutaneous type affects the skin and has the following signs: Injuries on the combs and wattles, legs, vent and under the wings. Loss appetite. The diptheritic type affects internal membranes and has the following symptoms: Injuries in the inside of the throat and mouth membranes resulting in difficult breathing and swallowing. Eyes and nose produces a watery liquid. Loss of appetite. Dullness. Emaciation. Control Killing all affected birds followed by proper disposal of their carcasses. Vaccinating remaining healthy birds. Gumboro It is also referred to as poultry AIDS. Animals attacked: Poultry. Cause: A virus known as Birma virus. Symptoms The glands above the vent bursa become swollen. Drop in egg production. Birds develop respiratory distress. Loss of appetite. Low water intake by birds. Loss of immunity making the birds more susceptible to opportunistic diseases. Control Vaccination. Administering vitamins and especially B12. African Swine Fever Animals attacked: All domesticated pigs. Cause: A virus known as Irido virus. Symptoms Fever. Loss of appetite. Depression dullness. Emaciation. Coughing. Nasal discharge. Diarrhoea in serious conditions. Control For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 75 Vaccination. Quarantine. Killing all affected animals and proper disposal of their carcasses. Double fencing to keep wild animals away. Nutritional Diseases Disorders Milk Fever It is a non-infectious disease brought about by calcium deficiency in animals which have recently given birth. Animals attacked: Cows, goats and pigs that have recently given birth.


Double fencing to keep wild animals away. Nutritional Diseases Disorders Milk Fever It is a non-infectious disease brought about by calcium deficiency in animals which have recently given birth. Animals attacked: Cows, goats and pigs that have recently given birth. Causes: Due to low calcium levels in the blood. Which leads to an increase in the magnesium and sugar level in the blood. Mostly occurs in high producing cows in the first few months of lactation. This is because these animals loose more calcium through milk secretion than they are getting from the diet. Symptoms Dullness. Muscular twitching causing the animal to tremble. Staggering as the animals move. Animal falls down ands becomes unconscious. The animal lies down on its side and the whole body stiffens. Body functions such as urination, defecation and milk secretion stops. Stomach contents are drawn into the mouth which later cause lung fever when breathing in. Loss of appetite. Treatment Intravenous injection of soluble calcium salt in form of calcium boro-gluconate ,60gms dissolved in 500cc of water. Keeping the animal in a comfortable position on its sternum. Giving fresh water. Note: The animals suffering from milk fever should not be given medicine orally for the following reasons: It will not be able to swallow medicine. The medicine may get into the lungs thereby promoting lung fever. Control Partial milking for the first 10 days. High yielding cows should be given rations containing phosphorus and calcium. Giving high doses of Vitamin D.Bloat Animals attacked: Cattle and sheep. Cause: Accumulation of gases as a result of fermentation in the rumen. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 76 Symptoms The left side is blown up. Sudden death. Control Relieve by use of trocar and cannula. Chasing the animal around if noticed early. Drenching by use of stop bloat. Feeding ruminants with dry roughages during the wet season before grazing on lush pastures. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke.


Fish Farming Aquaculture : This is the practice of rearing fish and other aquatic organisms , in ponds. Bee Keeping Apiculture : This involves the rearing of bees in structures known as beehives. Poultry Keeping: This is the keeping of domesticated birds. Agricultural Economics It deals with the allocation of scarce resources land, labour, capital and management for agricultural production. Agricultural Engineering This branch of agriculture deals with the use and maintenance of farm tools, machinery and structures. Farming Systems A farming system is the organization of the various enterprises in a farm. It is determined by the following factors: Resources available land, labour, capital and management . Skills of the farmer. Environmental factors such as climate, soil type and topography. Government policy. Farmer's choice and preference. Enterprise requirement. Social-cultural factors. The following are systems of farming: Extensive System: For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke It is a system where a large piece of land with low investment of resources per unit area is carried out. Advantages It is cheap. Does not require high level of management. Requires less labour. Disadvantages Low profit per unit area. Cannot be practiced where land is limited. Low output per unit area. The land is under-utilized, Intensive Farming: This system utilizes the factors of production to the maximum and involves high level of management. Advantages Maximum utilization of the resources. Can be practiced even where land is a limiting factor. Results in high yields. Disadvantages Labour intensive. High capital investment is required. Requires high level of management. Can lead to high loses in case of poor management. Large Scale Farming Refers to the farming practice under large areas of land over 20 hectares. It is used mainly for commercial purposes. The system is highly mechanized. Advantages Results in high yields. Due to economics of scale high profit is realized. Disadvantages Lack of diversification may lead to total failure in case of unfavorable conditions. High level of management is required. Heavy capital investment. Requires skilled and qualified manpower. Small Scale Farming Refers to farming carried out on a small area of land less than 5 hectares. Family or casual labour can be engaged during the peak periods.


Requires skilled and qualified manpower. Small Scale Farming Refers to farming carried out on a small area of land less than 5 hectares. Family or casual labour can be engaged during the peak periods. Most of the Kenyan farmers are small scale due to unavailability of farmland. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Advantages Requires low capital investment. Possible where land is a limiting factor. Does not require high management level unless under intensive system. Disadvantages Uneconomical 10 mechanize due to small size. Low production. Provides limited employment. Labour intensive. Difficult to specialize. Methods of Farming A method of farming is an established way of carrying out farming activities. The following are the common methods of farming: Mixed Farming It is the practice of growing crops and keeping of livestock on the same land. Its common in high potential areas. Advantages Mutual benefit between crops and livestock. Crops supply feed for animals while animals supply manure for crops. Acts as an insurance against total loss by the farmer. The farmer is assured of an income throughout the year. There is maximum utilization of the resources. Animals can be used in the farm activities particularly draught animals. Ensures proper utilization of labour and land throughout the year. Disadvantages High initial capital. Lack of specialization. Land can be a limiting factor if both enterprises are to be raised. Requires high level of management for both enterprises. Nomadic-Pastoralism This is the practice of livestock rearing whereby animals are moved from one place to another in search of water and pastures. It is practiced in the arid and semi-arid areas where in most cases beef animals are kept. Nomadic pastoralism is gradually changing to ranching with the introduction of: Improved pasture species, improved livestock breeds and supplementary feeding. Efficient disease and parasite control measures. Improved infra-structure such as roads, water supply, cattle dipping facilities. Extension services. Advantages Serves as the backbone of beef industry in Kenya. Proper way of utilizing the arid and semi arid areas. Source of income to the pastoral communities.


Advantages Serves as the backbone of beef industry in Kenya. Proper way of utilizing the arid and semi arid areas. Source of income to the pastoral communities. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Disadvantages It encourages the spread of livestock pests and diseases due to communal watering points, grazing and dipping facilities. There is a tendency to increased soil erosion and land degradation. Source of conflicts and ethnic tension among the nomadic communities for the control of good pastures and water. Difficult to control breeding and breeding diseases. High rate of inbreeding leading to poor quality livestock. Low production of milk, meat, hides and skins due to wastage of energy in traveling from one place to another in search of pastures and water. High death rates as a result of walking for long distances. Shifting Cultivation It is a traditional method of cultivating a piece of land until the soil is exhausted and crop yields decline. The land is abandoned and the farmer shifts to a new field as the previous land is left fallow to regain its fertility. Advantages Land is allowed to rest and regain its fertility. No build up of pests and diseases. Soil structure is restored. The cost of production is low since inorganic fertilizers and pesticides are not used. Crop produce are chemical free. Disadvantages Not practical where land is a limiting factor. Farm planning and acquisition of credits for land development is 'not possible. It is a cumbersome method due to constant movement. Lack of soil conservation measures Not possible to grow perennial crops. Low output per unit area due to poor farming methods. Where fire is used to clear the land organic matter is destroyed. Organic Farming It is a fanning method where crops are grown and livestock reared without the use of agrochemicals. It is a method of farming which has been adopted to reduce the long term effect of the agro-chemicals on crops which may eventually end up in man and livestock. Agro-chemicals are also expensive thus organic farming reduces the cost of production. Organically produced goods fetch high market prices. Advantages Cheap and cost effective. Make use of the locally available materials Useful in improving the soil structures. No side effects from the crops and livestock products. No environmental pollution.


Make use of the locally available materials Useful in improving the soil structures. No side effects from the crops and livestock products. No environmental pollution. Agro-Forestry For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke This is the practice of integrating trees and crops on the same piece of land. With land resources becoming more scarce, agroforestry is becoming more important. Examples of common agroforestry trees and shrubs include: Cajanus cajan Grevillea robusta Sesbania sesban Calliandra calothyrsus Casuarina equisetifolia Leucaena leucocephala Trees selected for agroforestry should have the following characteristics: Able to grow fast. Deep roots to minimize competition for nutrients. Should be preferably leguminous. Advantages Trees reduce soil erosion in a given area. Leguminous trees add nitrates into the soil thus improving the soil fertility. Some trees can be used as livestock fodder to provide a high level of proteins. They are important sources of wood fuel and timber. There is maximum utilization of land. Importance of Agriculture to the Economy of Kenya Provides food to the population to meet nutritional requirements and to enable man to engage in other activities of farming. Provides employment. This for example can be direct as a labourer in the farm, tea plucker or indirect for example, working in agricultural based industries. Source of raw materials for industries for example cotton lint for textile industry. Provides foreign exchange - through exporting agricultural produce. Provides market for industrial goods agriculture is a consumer of the finished goods from agro-based industries. Source of income - farmers as well as the government get revenue from the sale of agricultural produce and tax payment. Factors Influencing Agriculture Introduction Agricultural production is influenced by external factors: Human factors Biotic factors Climatic factors Edaphic factors. Human Factors For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke These are human characteristics which affect the way decisions are made and operations carried out. Level of education and technology: Skills Technological ad van cements . Human health HIV-AIDS: These affect the strength, the vigour, vision and the determination to work.


Human Factors For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke These are human characteristics which affect the way decisions are made and operations carried out. Level of education and technology: Skills Technological ad van cements . Human health HIV-AIDS: These affect the strength, the vigour, vision and the determination to work. HIV AIDS is the biggest threat to human health today and has long lasting effects on agriculture, such as; Shortage of farm labour. Loss of family support. Low living standards leading to despondency and hopelessness. Increased criminal activities. More time spent by the Government and NGO's in Carring for the sick. Economy; Stability in the countries' economy affect agricultural production. Government Policy: These are governmental laws which have been enacted to protect farmers, land and livestock. They include: Food policy Policies on control of livestock parasites and diseases. Policies on marketing of both local and export products and others. Transport and communication: For agricultural goods to move from the farm to the consumers. Cultural practices and religious beliefs: These activities hinder important changes in a society that may bring agricultural development. Market forces: Demand and supply forces which affect prices of commodities in a free market. Biotic Factors These are living organisms which affect agricultural production. Pests - Destructive organisms which destroy crops. Parasites - These are invertebrates which live in or on other living organisms. Decomposers - Organisms which act on plants and animal tissues to form manure. Pathogens - Micro-organisms which cause diseases. Predators - Animals that kill and feed on other animals. Pollinators - They transfer pollen grains from the stamens to the pistil of a flower. Nitrogen fixing bacteria -They are micro-organisms which convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates ready for use by the plants. Climatic Factors weather elements . Rainfall, Temperature, Wind, Relative humidity Light. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Weather - Atmospheric conditions of a place at a given time period. Climate - weather conditions of a place observed and recorded for a period of 30-40 years.


Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of the parent rock near the surface of the earth to a stable substance. Weathering process is a combination of disintegration breakdown and synthesis build up process. Weathering process is continuous. Types of Weathering Physical weathering Chemical weathering Biological weathering Agents of Weathering Physical Agents of Weathering Include wind, water, moving ice and temperature. Wind - carry materials which hit against each other to break into fragments. Water - intensity of rainfall causes breakdown of rock. Moving ice - has grinding effects which tear off rock particles. Extreme temperature cause rocks to expand and contract suddenly peeling off their surface. Chemical Weathering Affects the chemical composition and structure of the rock. Involves processes such as ; Hydrolysis, Hydration, Carbonation Oxidation. Hydration; The process by which soluble minerals in the rocks absorb water and expand weakening the rock thus leading to disintegration. Hydrolysis; The process whereby water dissolves soluble minerals in the rock weakening it. Oxidation; For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke The reaction of rock minerals with oxygen to form oxides which break easily. Carbonation; The process whereby carbonic acids formed when rain water dissolves carbon dioxide, It reacts with calcium carbonates in limestone causing it to disintegrate. Biological Weathering This involves the action of living organisms, plants and animals on the rocks. Burrowing animals, for example, termites and moles bring soil particles to the surface exposing them to other agents of weathering. Big animals like, elephants, buffaloes, camels and cattle exert a lot of pressure on the rocks as they step on them due to their heavy weights causing the rocks to disintegrate. Earthworms take part in the decomposition of plant matter with the soil particles. Man's activities like, mining and quarrying expose rocks to the surface during excavation. These activities breakdown large rocks into smaller rock particles. Plant roots force their way through the cracks in the rocks thus widening and splitting them. Humic acids formed when plant tissues decompose react with the rocks weakening them further. Plant remains-decompose adding humus into the soil.


Plant roots force their way through the cracks in the rocks thus widening and splitting them. Humic acids formed when plant tissues decompose react with the rocks weakening them further. Plant remains-decompose adding humus into the soil. Factors influencing soil formation Climate- rainfall, temperature and wind Biotic factors - living organisms. Parent material- Nature and properties of the original rock from which the soil is formed. Time - length of time during which the soil forming processes have taken place. Topography - influences the movement of disintegrated materials. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke It is the vertical arrangement of different layers of soil from the ground surface to the bedrock. These layers are also referred to as horizons. The layers show differences in their contents and physical properties such as colour, texture and structure. The layers include: organic matter region, top soil, sub-soil, weathered rocks and parent material. Organic Matter Region First layer of the soil found on the surface. Made up of leaves and other plant remains at various stages of decomposition. Some soil organisms may also be found here. Top Soil Has a dark colour due to the presence of humus. Is rich in plant nutrients and well aerated. It is a zone of maximum leaching zone of eluviations Sub-Soil It is compact and less aerated. It is a zone of accumulation of leached material zone of aluviation from the top layers. Deep rooted crops have their roots growing up to this region. Hard pans normally form in this layer For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Weathered Rocks It is also called substratum. Rocks at various stages of disintegration are found in this zone. Most of the materials found in this zone originate from the parent rock. Parent Rock It exists as a solid mass which is un-weathered. It is the source of the inorganic composition of the soil. The water table is on the surface of this rock. Soils Formed in Situ and Soils Deposited Soil formed in the same place and remains there is said to be in situ.


It is the source of the inorganic composition of the soil. The water table is on the surface of this rock. Soils Formed in Situ and Soils Deposited Soil formed in the same place and remains there is said to be in situ. However, soil can be formed due to deposition of soil particles carried from its original site of formation to another area which is usually in the lower areas of slopes. Such soils are said to have been formed through deposition. Soil Formed in Situ Soil Deposited l.Has the colour of the parent rock 1. Has the characteristics of when: it came from. 2. Shallower 2. Deeper 3. Less rich in plant nutrients 3. Richer in plant nutrients 4. Easily eroded 4. Not easily eroded 5. Less silty 5. More silty 6. Have the same chemical composition 6. Differ in chemical composition from the as that of the underlying parent rock. Underlying parent rock. Soil Depth This is the distance between top soil layer and the bottom soil layer in a profile. It dictates root penetration and growth Deep soils are more suitable for crop growth since they contain more nutrients. Have a larger surface are for root expansion. Deep soils facilitate good drainage and aeration. Soil Constituents Organic Matter - Dead and decaying plants and animal remains Living Organisms - Soil organisms and plant roots. Micro-organisms bacteria, protozoa and fungi Invertebrates -termites, Earthworms and molluscs. Higher animals - rodents and others. Inorganic or Mineral Matter Formed from the parent materials. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Supply plant nutrients Form the skeleton and framework of the soil. Air Found in the pore spaces of the soil. Used for root and organism respiration Used for germination of seeds. Helps in decomposition of organic matter. Regulates soil temperature. Regulates the movement of water through capillary action. Water Dissolves mineral salts Maintain turgidity in plants. Used for germination of seeds Used by soil organisms. Regulate soil temperature Dictates the amount of air in the soil.


Soil Textural Classes Sandy Soils Made up largely of sand particles. Have large pore spaces hence poor in water retention. Easy to till light soils . Freely draining. Low fertility due to leaching of minerals. Easily erodible. Clayey Soils Made up largely of clayey particles. Have small pore spaces hence good in moisture retention. Difficult to till heavy soils . Poorly 'drained. Expand when wet, crack when dry. High capillary. Rich in plant nutrients. Loam Soils About equal amounts of sand and clay. Moderately good in both moisture and air retention. Fertile soils. Soil Colour This depends on the, mineral composition of the parent rock and the organic matter content. Soils containing a lot of iron are brownish, yellowing and reddish in colour. Soils with a lot of silica are white. Soils with a lot of humus are dark or grey. Soil pH This refers to the acidity or alkalinity of the soil solution the concentration of hydrogen ions in the soil solution. Soil pH is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions H or the hydroxyl ions OH in the soil solution. A pH of less than 7 means that the soil is acidic. A pH of more than 7 means that the soil is alkaline. As the hydroxyl ions OH in the soil increase the soil becomes more alkaline. Influence of Soil pH Crop Growth It determines the type of crop to be grown in a particular area. Most crops are affected by either very acidic or very basic soil pH. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Soil pH affects the choice of fertilizers and the availability of nutrients to crops. At low pH the concentration of available iron and aluminium in the soil solution may increase to toxic levels, which is harmful to plants. Very acidic or low pH inhibit the activity of soil micro-organisms. Farm Tools and Equipment Introduction Farm tools and equipment perform specific jobs in the farm. They make work easier and more efficient. They can be classified according to their uses as follows: Garden Tools and Equipment Tools Uses Panga Cutting and shallow cultivation, making holes. Jembe hand hoe Cultivation, digging, shallow planting holes and trenches.


They make work easier and more efficient. They can be classified according to their uses as follows: Garden Tools and Equipment Tools Uses Panga Cutting and shallow cultivation, making holes. Jembe hand hoe Cultivation, digging, shallow planting holes and trenches. Fork iembe Cultivation, digging out roots, harvesting of root crops. Rake Collecting trash, breaking large clods, levelling, removing stones from a seedbed and spreading organic manure. Spade Scooping and carrying of soil, sand, concrete mixture and manure. Spring balance Measuring weight. Trowel Scooping seedlings during transplanting and .digging planting holes for seedlings. Pruning hook Bending tall branches when pruning. Secateur Cutting young stems and pruning branches. 10. Tape measure Measuring distances. 11. Axe Cutting big trees and roots and splitting logs of wood. 12. Soil auger Making holes for fencing posts. 13. Mattock Digging hard soils 14. Sprinklers Overhead irrigation. 15. Watering can Watering plants in nursery bed. 16. Wheel barrow Transportation of soil, fertilizers, farm produce, tools and equipment. 17. Levelling board For levelling a nursery bed. 18. Pruning saw Cutting old wood stems and pruning big branches. 19. Hose pipe For conveying water from a tap to where it is need. 20. Knap sack sprayer Applying agro-chemical by spraying. 21. Garden shear Trimming hedges. 22. Pruning knife Removal of small shoots. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Livestock Production Tools and Equipment Tools Uses Drenching gun Administering liquid drugs to animals orally. Bolus gun dosing gun Administering solid drugs or tablets to animals orally. Wool Shears Cutting off wool from sheep. Hypodermic syringe Administering drugs by injection for example in vaccination. Stirrup bucket pump Application of acaricide by hand spraying. Thermometer Taking body temperatures of farm animals. Burdizzo Used in bloodless method of castration. Halter Rope designed to restrain the animal. Trimming knife Cutting short the overgrown hooves. Elastrator Stretching rubber ring during castration, dehorning and docking of lambs. Iron dehorner Applies heat on the horn bud to prevent growth of horns.


Trimming knife Cutting short the overgrown hooves. Elastrator Stretching rubber ring during castration, dehorning and docking of lambs. Iron dehorner Applies heat on the horn bud to prevent growth of horns. Nose ring Fixed into the nose of a bull to restrain it. Strip cup Detecting mastitis in milk products. Trocar and cannula Relieving a bloated animal of gases particularly ruminants. Hard broom For scrubbing the floor. Ear notcher Making ear notches in livestock. Bucket For holding milk during milking. Milk chum For holding milk after milking. Milk strainer sieve Removing foreign particles from milk for example hairs and sediments. Rope Tying or tethering animals. Milking stool Used by the milker to sit on while milking. Weighing balance Weighing milk after milking. Teeth clipper Removal of canine teeth of piglets soon after birth. Chaff cutter Cutting fodder into small bits. Dehorning wire Cutting grown horns. 23. Meter ruler Measuring distances. 24. Garden fork Shallow digging. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Workshop Tools and Equipment Tools Uses Spanner Tightening and loosening nuts and bolts. Pliers Cutting small wires and thin metal and gripping firmly. Files Sharpening tools, smoothening or shaping edges of metals, Rasps Smoothening and shaping of wooden structures. Chisels wood Making grooves in wood. Cold chisel Cutting and shaping metal. Screw drivers Driving screws in or out of wood or metal. Saws Cross cut saw Cutting across the grain of wood. Rip saw Cutting along the grain of wood. Hack saw Bow saw Cutting metals. Tenonlback saw Cutting branches of trees. Coping saw Cutting Joints on wood and fine sawing. Compass keyhole saw Cutting curves on thin wood. Cutting either along or across the grain of wood especially when cutting key holes. Tin snip Cutting metal sheets. Braces and bits. Boring holes in wood. ,. Drill and bits Boring holes in metal work and woodwork. Hammer Claw hammer Driving in, removing and straightening nails. Ball pein Driving in nails, rivets and straightening metal. Also used on cold chisel Mallet Hammering or hitting wood chisel. Jack plane Fine finishing of wood.


Soften the soil for easy planting. Operations in primary cultivation Hand digging ; Use of hand tools ; Jembes, Mattocks, Fork-jembes. Mechanical cultivation ; Use of mouldboard ploughs; Disc ploughs, Chisel ploughs, Subsoilers Rippers. Use of Ox-Ploughs ; Which can be drawn by; Oxen, Donkeys, Camels Depth of Cultivation Depends on: The type of crop to be planted size of seed. The implements available. The type of soil. Choice of Implement Determined by: The condition of land. The type of tilth required type of crop. Depth of cultivation. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Secondary Tillage These are refinement practices on the seedbed that follow primary cultivation. It is also known as harrowing. Reasons for secondary Tillage: To remove the germinating weeds. To break soil clods to produce required tilth. To level the seedbed for uniform planting. To incorporate organic matter manure into the soil. Factors determining number of secondary cultivation: Soil moisture content. Size of the planting materials. Condition of the soil after primary cultivation. Slope of the land. Tertiary Operations: Ridging ; The process of digging soil on a continuous line and heaping on one side to produce a furrow and a bund ridge . It is important for root crops, to allow root expansion and for soil and water conservation. Rolling: It is the compaction of the soil to produce a firm surface which increases seed-soil contact and prevents wind erosion. Levelling; Production of an even, uniform surface which promotes uniform planting. Subsoiling: This is deep cultivation into the subsoil layer to break up any hardpan which might have developed. It is done for the following reasons:- To facilitate drainage. Bring up leached nutrients to the surface. Increase aeration of the soil. To improve root penetration. The implements used include chisel plough and subsoilers. Minimum Tillage: This is the application of a combination of farming practices with the aim of reducing the disturbance of the soil.


To improve root penetration. The implements used include chisel plough and subsoilers. Minimum Tillage: This is the application of a combination of farming practices with the aim of reducing the disturbance of the soil. Examples of which include: For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Use of herbicides. Mulching and cover-cropping. Timely operations to prevent weed infestation. Strip cultivation. Uprooting and slashing of weeds. Reasons for Minimum Tillage To reduce cost of cultivation. To control soil erosion. To preserve soil moisture. To prevent root exposure and damage. To reconstruct destroyed soil structure. Water Supply, Irrigation and Drainage Introduction Water is a very important natural resource. It is necessary for both crops and livestock. Uses of water in the farm; Cleaning equipment. Irrigation in dry areas. Processing farm produce, for example, coffee. Drinking by livestock and man. Mixing agro-chemicals such as acaricide, fungicides and herbicides. Providing power in water mills to grind grain crops. Cooling engines. Construction work. Sources of Water in the Farm Three major sources of water in the farm: Surface water: Includes water from; Rivers, Streams Dams. Ground water: Includes water from; Springs, Wells Boreholes. Rain water: This is water tapped in various ways such as; Rooftops Rock surface, when it is raining and stored in various ways. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Collection and Storage of Water Dams: These are structures constructed across rivers and channels. They collect and store water for use during the dry season. Weirs: These are structures constructed across rivers to raise the water level for easy pumping. Unlike in the dams water flows over the barrier created across the river. Water Tanks: These are structures made of concrete, stone, metal sheets and plastics. They store water from rain or that which has been pumped from other sources. Tanks should be covered to prevent contamination from dust. Pumps and Pumping of Water Pumping is the lifting of water from one point to another by use of mechanical force.


They store water from rain or that which has been pumped from other sources. Tanks should be covered to prevent contamination from dust. Pumps and Pumping of Water Pumping is the lifting of water from one point to another by use of mechanical force. Water is pumped from the various sources and then conveyed to where it is required for use or storage. Types of Water Pumps Used to lift water from its source. Centrifugal pumps Piston or reciprocating pumps Semi-rotary pumps and Hydram Conveyance of Water This is the process of moving water from one point, usually the source or point of storage to where it will be used or stored. Piping; This is where water is moved through pipes. The common types of pipes include: Metal pipes Plastic pipes Hose pipes Use of Containers: In this case water is drawn and put in containers . Drums, jerry cans, pots, gourds, tanks and buckets . Which are carried by animals, bicycles, human beings and vehicles. Use of Canals: In this case water is conveyed from a high point to a lower one along a gradual slope to avoid soil erosion. Water conveyed through this way is mostly used for irrigation and livestock. Water Treatment Raw water contains impurities which may be dissolved, floating or suspended in water. These impurities are grouped into three categories, namely: Physical impurities: these are dissolved impurities detected by colour, taste and smell. Chemical impurities: these are dissolved impurities detected by use of chemical analysis. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Biological impurities: these are microorganisms in water such as bacteria, viruses and algae. Importance of Treating Water To kill disease causing microorganisms such as cholera and typhoid bacteria that thrive in dirty water. To remove chemical impurities such as excess fluoride which may be harmful to human beings. To remove smells and bad taste. To remove sediments of solid particles such as soil, sand and sticks. Methods of Treating Water Aeration: this is the removal of smell and odour from water by fine spraying or bubbling of air. Sedimentation: this is where water is put in large containers so that solid particles such as sand, metal and others can settle at the bottom.


French drains. Cambered beds. Pumping out water from the soil. Planting tree species which absorb a lot of water for example eucalyptus. Water Pollution This is the process by which harmful substances get into the water. The harmful substance is referred to as a pollutant. Agricultural practices which pollute water include: Use of inorganic fertilizers. Use of pesticides. Poor cultivation practices such as over cultivation, cultivating along the river banks. Overgrazing which leads to erosion of soil thus causing siltation in water sources. Methods of Preventing Water Pollution Soil conservation measures which minimize soil losses through erosion. Fencing off the water sources. Adopting organic farming practices for example controlling pests and weed using nonchemical techniques. Planting grass along river banks to minimize siltation in rivers. Proper disposal of empty chemical containers. Soil Fertility I Organic Manures For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke Introduction Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to provide crops with the required nutrients in their proper proportions. Characteristics of a Fertile Soil Good depth - Good soils give roots greater volume to obtain plant nutrients and provide strong anchorage. Good aeration - for the respiration of plant roots and use by soil organisms. Good water holding capacity - ensures provision of adequate water for plant growth. Proper drainage - ensures provision of adequate air for plant growth. Correct soil pH - different crops have different soil pH requirements. Adequate nutrients supply - it should supply the required nutrients in the correct amounts and in a form available to plants. Free from excessive infestation of soil borne pests and diseases. How soil loses fertility Leaching: vertical movement of dissolved minerals from the top to the lower horizons of the soil profile. Soil erosion - The removal and carrying away of the top fertile soil from one place to another. Monocropping - This is the practice of growing one type of crop on a piece' of a land over a long time. Continuous cropping - crops take away a lot of nutrients from the soil which are never returned. Growing crops continuously without giving the soil time to rest makes the soil infertile. Change in soil pH - changes in soil pH affect the activity of soil microorganisms as well as the availability of soil nutrients.