Beans, cabbage leaves, lush grass Lucerne etcSymptomsThe left side of the abdomen is excessively distended. Death may occur within hours due to too much pressure exerted on blood vessels, lungs and heart. ControlFeed ruminants with dry roughage during the wet season. TreatmentThis involves the release of accumulated gases through. Manual means. -. Exercising the animal and rubbing its abdomen with both handsSurgical means- this is though piercing the abdominal wall directly over the blown up part of the rumen using trocar and cannula. A stomach pump can also be used to eject the excess gases through the oesophagus. Chemical this can be done through,Drenching of the animal using suitable oils such as turpentine oil mixed with vegetable oilAdministering Epsom salt to clear the rumen contents. Drenching does this. Administration of methyl silicone as an injection directly into the rumen. This prevents the frothy type of bloat. Parturition in Goats kidding Gestation period is 150 days or 143-153 days. Nannies carrying twins kid a few days earlier. Put nannies in a dry place under a shade or shelter to prevent kids from wet, cold and exposure to intensive heat that can cause death of kids.. Keep nanny and another female to avoid nervousness at kidding time. Do not disturb the animal. Seek for professional help if mulpresentation occurs or kidding delays for 3 hours. If placenta is retained, move the goat out with the others for physical exercise. This activates expulsion. Kidding SignsUnder firms and teats enlarge. The muscles at either side of the tail slacken or relax. Restlessness; pawing the ground, rise up, lie down frequently. Separate itself from the rest of the flock. A clear discharge from the vulva. Parturition in Pigs farrowing Gestation period is 4 months or 113-117 days. Clear and disinfect the farrowing pen. Introduce dry warm beddings with a farrowing crate 7-10 days prior to farrowing. Drench the pig to control internal parasites. Clean the skin with soap and water to remove external parasites, remove oil exudates from their skin which reduce effectiveness of acaricides and to remove mud and dirt. Bring the sow to the farrowing pen 3 days to the expected date.


More active in search of food and water and hive protection. Fairly resistant to diseases e.g. Acarive and American foul brood disease.. Vicious if manhandled. 2. European BeeCharacteristicsMore gentle and larger than African bee. Less active and vicious. Susceptible to bee diseases. The Bee ColonyA bee is a social insect that lives in a colonyThere are three types of bees in a colony. I.e. the queen, Drone and worker bee. The QueenOne queen in a colonyFunctions:Lay fertile eggs. Keeping the colony together by production of a pheromone queen substance for identification. The DroneAbout 300 in number in a colony. Functions:Fertilize the queen. Control temperature or cool the hive. I.e. by flapping their wide wings at a very high speed. N.B The drones are killed by worker bees after fertilizing the queen. C The worker bees-About 60,000 in number in a colony. Smallest and normally female bees. Functions;Feed queen, drones, and brood 9 young bees . Protect hive from intruders. Collect nectar, pollen, tree resins, gums and water. Build combs and seal the cracks and crevices in the hive. Make honey and bee wax. Life cycle of a beeFertilized queen move from one cell to another laying an egg in each. Eggs hatch after three days into larvae due to the warmth and temperature generated by the worker bees. Larvae are fed by the nurse bees on special honey. Each larva spins a cocoon and after 2 days moults into a pupa. Pupa become young bees after 10 days and emerges from the cocoon. Eggs, larvae and pupa form the brood. Siting the ApiaryApiary: Is a place where bees are kept. Factors considered on siting an Apiary:Availability of water: where water is not within 3 km radius, sugar solution or syrup is placed close to the hives. Availability of flowers: To provide nectar and pollen. A sheltered place: e.g. a forest to protect bees from sun and wind. Quiet place: Free from noise and other disturbances. Away from human beings and livestock: i.e. away from homesteads, pastures and busy roads. Bees sting. Away from human beings and livestock: i.e.


Away from homesteads, pastures and busy roads. Bees sting. Away from human beings and livestock: i.e. Away from homesteads, pastures and busy roads. Bees sting. Types of bee hivesLog Hive; Made of log. Log is split into 2-the larger part is made into a trough- shaped structure. The smaller part floor board is removed after suspension during harvesting without damaging the combs and brood. DiagramBox hive: sown timber cut to a length of 1m. Diagram. The Langstroth hive; Like a box hive but separated into chambers for the brood and the honey. To separate brood and honey chambers, a queen excluder is placed between the two chambers. The top board acts as the roof and the bottom board as the floor. Kenya top Bar Hive KTBH ; moveable frame hive. Bees attach their combs on the top bars which can be removed for examination. Advantages of KTBHTop bar can be removed for inspection of combs and replaced. Honey combs can be removed without damaging the brood. Honey is of high quality since it is harvested without the brood. More wax is harvested as honey combs are not returned to the hive. The hive is easy to construct and repair. Hive is cheap to build and no expensive equipment is required to extract honey. A queen excluder is used in the centre of the hive to separate honey from the brood so as to further increase the honey quality. LIVECTOCK PRODUCTION III SELECTION AND BREEDING Reproduction and reproductive systemReproduction is the process by which off springs are reproduced. Sexual reproduction involves the union of the female and male gametes. Female gametes and the male gametes fuse to form the zygote. Fertilization takes place in the body of the female. Embryo formed develops inside the body of the mother where its fed and protected until the end of the gestation period. In poultry, however eggs are fertilized internally but the development of the chicks takes place outside during incubation. Reproduction in cattleMale reproductive system produces the male gametes called spermatozoa s, which are introduced into the female reproductive system.


Embryo formed develops inside the body of the mother where its fed and protected until the end of the gestation period. In poultry, however eggs are fertilized internally but the development of the chicks takes place outside during incubation. Reproduction in cattleMale reproductive system produces the male gametes called spermatozoa s, which are introduced into the female reproductive system. The male reproductive systemIt s composed of the following:TestesEpididymisSperm ductsAccessory glands seminal vesicles and the prostate glands PenisTestesThey produce sperms and they hang outside loosely between the hind legs. Each testis is enclosed in a loose skin called scrotum. Scrotum regulates the temperature of the sperms so that they don t die. EpididymisThese are coiled tubes that store the spermsSperm ductsThey carry sperms to the urethra. Urethra also forms a part of he urinary system. Urethra expels the sperms through the penis. Urine and semen cannot be expelled at the same time due to presence of sphincter muscles which contract allowing either urine or sperms to pass. Accessory glandsProstate gland produces some fluid that neutralizes the acidic effects of the urine in the urethra hence preventing the death of the sperms. Seminal vesicles produce clear sticky fluid called semen. Semen carries the sperms out of the penis in fluid form. One ejaculation of sperms has many sperms but only one is required for fertilizationPenisIn bull, its long and muscular structure carried on the underside. It s surrounded by a sheath which is an extension of the skin. Penis introduces sperms into the vagina of the cow during mating. At the time of mating the penis protrudes outside the sheath. Female Reproductive systemIt s composed of:OvariesFallopian tubesUterusVagina and vulvaOvariesAre two located in the abdominal cavity near the kidneys, one on the right and one on the left... ovaries produce ova which is the female gamete. They also produce the female hormones. A hormone oestrogen is produced under the influence of another hormone called Follicle stimulating hormone FSH . Oestrogen is produced by the Graafian follicle located in the ovary.


They also produce the female hormones. A hormone oestrogen is produced under the influence of another hormone called Follicle stimulating hormone FSH . Oestrogen is produced by the Graafian follicle located in the ovary. Oestrogen induces Oestrus which is the heat period so that the cow shows signs of heat. After every 21 days, the ovary releases a mature ovum and the cow comes on heat. Fallopian Tubes oviduct Ovum travels through the fallopian tubes to the uterus. The release and movement of the ovum down to the uterus is called ovulation. If mating is done at this time fertilization occurs. UterusThis is where fertilization takes place. The fertilized egg implants itself on to the walls of the uterus and develops into the foetus. Vagina and VulvaVulva is the external opening of the cow s reproductive system. It allows mating to take place so that the sperms are deposited into the vagina. The vagina acts as the birth canal-Pregnancy Gestation PeriodThis is the normal period between fertilization and the expulsion of the foetus through the vulva. The gestation period varies with different animals.e.gDuring pregnancy a hormone called progesterone is produced by the placenta to maintain pregnancy. After birth, the reproductive tract undergoes a period of healing Rest during which it s repaired and returns to normal. Parturition BirthThis is the act of giving birth. This is the time when the foetus is expelled through the birth canal. The following signs are expressed by a cow that is about to give birth. Distended udder which produces a thick milky fluid Colostrums Swollen vulva producing a thick mucus like dischargeGeneral restlessnessLoose and slackened pelvic girdleVisible pin bonesA water bag appears and bursts just before calvingAfter these signs are seen the animal parturates normally within 2-3 hours. The correct presentation is with the front feet first and the head resting between the feet. Any other presentation is called Malpresentation or Breech Presentation especially when the hind legs come out first. Reproduction in PoultryThe cock has no penis but a small opening near the vent through which sperms are emitted. It has testis within its body. Hens have an elongated oviduct necessary for the formation of the egg.


Reproduction in PoultryThe cock has no penis but a small opening near the vent through which sperms are emitted. It has testis within its body. Hens have an elongated oviduct necessary for the formation of the egg. Fertilization takes place internally. During mating the hens cloaca vent protrudes so that the vent of the cock fits into it. The vent of a hen sucks the sperms which flow to the uterus through the oviduct of a hen. Reproductive system of the hen consists of the following. OvaryFunnel infundibulum MagnumUterusVaginaCloacaOvaryA hen has two ovaries and only the left one is functional. Eggs or ova are formed in the ovary. A hen has 3,500-4,000 ova. Each ovum is contained in a follicle. When the ovum or yolk is mature, its released from the ovary by the rupture of the follicle. It moves into the oviduct where its received by the funnel. FunnelIts 11.6cm long and fertilization takes place here. Chalazae are added to hold the yolkOvum stays here for about hourMagnumIt s 33cm long. Yolk moves down the magnum where thick albumen is added. It stays here for 3 hours. IsthmusIt s 10.6 cm long. Shell membranes are added. Water mineral salts and vitamins are also added. The egg takes about hour to move from this region. Uterus shell gland The region has calcium depositsShell is added round the eggEgg stays here for about 18-22Vagina 6.9 cm Egg is temporarily stored before it s laidCloacaThe egg moves out of the cloaca through the vent. Cloaca extends out to prevent the egg from breaking. NB whether fertilization takes place or not the egg will have to be formed. Fertilization doesn t take place the egg cannot hatch. The process of egg formation in a hen takes about 24-26 hours. Therefore, a hen is able to lay only one egg in a day. The components of an egg are obtained from the body reserves of a hen.


The process of egg formation in a hen takes about 24-26 hours. Therefore, a hen is able to lay only one egg in a day. The components of an egg are obtained from the body reserves of a hen. SELECTIONSelection is a process of allowing certain animals to be the parents of the future generations while culling others. The animals retained in the herd have certain desirable characteristics which make them produce more. The selected animals males and females make up the Breeding stock. Breeding stock is used to produce offspring s with the same qualities or better than their parents. Breeding stock should therefore pass the good traits of quality to their offspring for better performance thus improving the livestock. Selection process repeated for many generations increases the Gene Frequency i.e. occurrence of the genes that carry desirable characteristics. Selection therefore increases the occurrences of desirable genes and reduces the undesirable genes. HeritabilityThis refers to the likelihood of a particular trait to be transmitted to the offspring. E.g. in dairy cattle the characteristics which are highly heritable include butter fat content, growth rate, and mortality rate at birth. A character like milk yield is lowly heritable. Such a character is environmental i.e. weakly inherited and selection will not improve it. The degree to selection affects a character depends on the following factors;heritability of the characterintensity within which selection is doneinterval between generations and kind of selection being practicedFactors to Consider When Selecting a Breeding StockAge - young animals should be selected because such animals have a longer productive life. Very old animals are low producers and poor breeders. Level of performance - only animals with the highest production level should be selected.. Performance is best determined by use of records. Performance of the relatives such as ancestors should be checked to ascertain whether the animal belongs to a high producing family. The ability of the parents to pass good qualities to their offspring s ii referred to as prepotency. Physical fitness animas selected should be free from ay physical defects such as limping, irregular number of teats, mono eyed and weak back line etc. Health Animals selected should be healthy. Sick animals do not breed well and those falling sick often are expensive to keep. Body conformation - Animals for breeding should be selected according to their proper body conformation. E.g. Dairy cows should be wedge shaped with a large udderAnimal behaviour Temperament Animals with undesirable behaviours e.g.


Body conformation - Animals for breeding should be selected according to their proper body conformation. E.g. Dairy cows should be wedge shaped with a large udderAnimal behaviour Temperament Animals with undesirable behaviours e.g. cannibalism in poultry and aggressiveness in dairy cattle should be culled. Quality of Products animals that give products of high quality should be selected. E.g. in wool production breeds that produce fine, long elastic and pure white wool should be selected. Mothering ability Animals selected should have a natural instinct towards their young ones. This enables them to rear the young ones up to weaning. Adaptability Animals selected should be well adapted to the prevailing climatic conditions in the area. Prolificacy Animals selected should be highly prolific. I.e. have the ability to give birth to many off springs at a time. Methods of SelectionMass selectionThis is the choosing of animals for breeding on the basis of their own performance and the mating them at random. Offsprings of these animals are expected to show higher performance than the previous herd. This is because mass selection increases the occurrence of the desirable genes in a population. Progeny testingProgeny is the offspring resulting from selected parents. In this method a group of progenies are used to as an aid to increase the accuracy in the selection of the breeding stock. It s used when the character is expressed by one sex only. Progeny testing takes a long time for the results to be realized. E.g. it may take a bull 8-9 years before the progeny testing results are out. Contemporary comparisonThis method involves the comparison of the average production of the daughters of each bull with that of the other heifer referred to as Contemporaries in the herd. The method assumes that the differences between the herds of the same breed are non-genetic in origin. AdvantagesIt s possible to compare animals of different age groupsAccurate due to presence of comparisonEliminates differences brought about by environment since average performance of the herd is used. It s possible to make direct comparison of the bulls at different A.I Centers. BREEDINGSelection increases the gene frequency and ensures that the desirable genes are concentrated in the offspring thus performing better than the parents. Selection therefore doesn t introduce or create new genes in an animal but uses the existing ones. Breeding is the process of mating selected females and males to produce offsprings of the required characteristics.


BREEDINGSelection increases the gene frequency and ensures that the desirable genes are concentrated in the offspring thus performing better than the parents. Selection therefore doesn t introduce or create new genes in an animal but uses the existing ones. Breeding is the process of mating selected females and males to produce offsprings of the required characteristics. Reasons for Breedingto expand the inherited potential of the animalTo introduce new genes to improve animals productivity. To produce animals those are resistant to diseases and other environmental hazards. To satisfy consumers taste e.g. tender meat, fast growth rate etc. Economic reasons; breeding animals with high growth rate means that these animals acquire market weight very fast. NB Genetic factors play a big role and therefore proper methods should be adopted. These genetic factors include;InheritanceThis is the genetic transmission of traits from the parents to the offsprings. These traits are carried by the male and female gametes. An animal s body has two types of cells, sex cells called the gametes and the somatic cells called the body cells. Sex cells have chromosomes that contain genes. ChromosomesThey carry gene which determine the specific characteristics in an individual animal. They exist in pairs in the nucleus of the body cells and are always constant in number. In the sex cells the genes are found in single units. I.e. GenesThese are very tiny units of inheritance carrying particular traits found in animals e.g. Body shape, disease resistance, prolificacy, colour etc. They are found in specific points in chromosomes called the gene loci locus . They look like beads on a string. DiagramGenes occurs in pairs on the chromosome called alleles. Alleles form allelomorphic genes. If the members of an allele have the same effect or quality, the character is said to be homozygous. If these genes have different effect that carries different qualities the resulting character will be heterozygous. Cell DivisionThe two types in animal multiply themselves through the process of cell division. Body cells somatic cells divide by a process called mitosis. In mitosis each parent cell produces two daughter cells having the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Sex cells- gametes divide and reproduce through a process called meiosis. The process results in four daughter cells having half the number of chromosomes as was in the parent cells. During fertilization when the sperm joins with the ovum each having half the number of chromosomes , the full chromosome number is restored.


Sex cells- gametes divide and reproduce through a process called meiosis. The process results in four daughter cells having half the number of chromosomes as was in the parent cells. During fertilization when the sperm joins with the ovum each having half the number of chromosomes , the full chromosome number is restored. Terms used in BreedingDominant and Recessive TraitsDominant means to suppress the other. Recessive means suppressed or dominated by the other characters. If the dominant and the recessive traits are brought together, the offspring shows the dominant trait e.g. the gene for horns is dominant over the gene for hornless. Therefore if a polled bull hornless is mated with a horned cow, the offspring produced will be horned. Sometimes there is partial dominance incomplete dominance where the offspring do not resemble either parent exactly. Hybrid and Hybrid VigorAn animal is a hybrid if it possesses a dominant characteristic and the other one is recessive. If two hybrids are crossed, the offsprings will attain 75 dominance and 25 recessive ness. If two superior animals of different breeds are mated, the offspring that results is highly productive and has a higher growth rate and an improved body conformation. Such an animal has hybrid vigor or heterosis. Hybrid vigor is increased vigor and performance resulting from crossing two unrelated superior animals. The genes that produce vigor are dominant are while those that lack vigor are recessive. EpistasisIt s the combination of genes which individually could have been undesirable or inferior. This way, the effects of some recessive genes are masked such that they cannot be expressed. Breeding SystemsInbreedingOut breedingInbreedingThis is the mating of animals which are closely related to each other. Reasons for InbreedingTo increase the genetic uniformity in a herd increasing homozygosity. Fixing required characteristics in the new breeds. Increasing phenotypic uniformity. This helps to describe the external characteristics of a certain breed for example the colour of Friesians is black. Used to test whether an animal has high prepotency. To get proven sires i.e. males which have been confirmed and proven to have high qualities through backcrossing. Disadvantagesloss of hybrid vigorhigh rate of pre-natal mortalitymay lead to decline in fertility hence species extinctionSystems of InbreedingClose Breeding: this is the breeding of very closely related animals.


To get proven sires i.e. males which have been confirmed and proven to have high qualities through backcrossing. Disadvantagesloss of hybrid vigorhigh rate of pre-natal mortalitymay lead to decline in fertility hence species extinctionSystems of InbreedingClose Breeding: this is the breeding of very closely related animals. I.e. sib mating- between brothers and sisters and parent-sib mating between parents and offsprings. Line Breeding- this is the mating of distantly related animals that share a common ancestor. E.g. Cousins and cousins, granddaughters versus grand sires etc. The system aims at preserving good qualities of superior ancestors. 2 Out BreedingThis is the mating of animals that are not related. Reasons for Out BreedingTo introduce new desirable genesTo exploit heterosis hybrid vigor . A cross breed performs better than the average of the two parentsTo establish a new breed or a grade animal. Systems of Out BreedingOut crossingCross breedingUpgrading grading up Out CrossingThis is the mating of unrelated animals but within the same breed e.g. serving a Friesian cow in Nakuru with semen from a Friesian bull in Britain. The system helps to overcome weaknesses obtained through inbreeding. It also maintains the characteristics of a pure breed such as colour. Cross BreedingThis is the mating of two animals from two different breeds. This creates hybrid vigor. The system helps to upgrade the local animals by crossing them with exotic ones especially for better milk production. Upgrading or grading upThis is where the female of low grade stock is mated with a pure bred sire. The offspring gets half of the sire s genes. Such an offspring is referred to as a Hygrade. The system is commonly used in A.I to improve local cattle for milk production. Mating in Livestocka Mating in CattleOestrus Heat Period A cow comes on heat every 21 days. The duration between one hate period and the next is called oestrus cycle. Heat period in a cow lasts for 18-30 hours. The cow should betaken for service 12-18 hors after showing the first heat signs for successful mating.


The duration between one hate period and the next is called oestrus cycle. Heat period in a cow lasts for 18-30 hours. The cow should betaken for service 12-18 hors after showing the first heat signs for successful mating. Signs of HeatRestlessnessMounting others and stands still when mounted onRise in body temperatureMilk yield drops slightlyVulva swells and reddensClear slimy mucus from the vaginaBellowing and mooing frequently. B Mating in PigsSows stay on heat for 2-3 days. The best time to serve is the second day of the heat period. The sow is taken to the boar and allowed to stay there for at least 2 days. Signs of HeatRestlessnessFrequent urinationSwelling and reddening of the vulvaClear slimy mucus discharge from the vaginaFrequent mounting on othersResponds positively to the riding testc Mating in Rabbits. The does are ready for mating at 6-7 months of age. Heat signs are repeated after 14 days. Signs of heatRestlessnessFrequent urinationSwollen vulvaDoe throws itself on its sidesDoe tries to contact other rabbits in the next hutch by peepingThe doe rubs itself against the wall or any solid object. Methods of service in LivestockNatural matingArtificial Insemination A.I Embryo transplantNatural MatingThis is the use of a male to serve a female. It is commonly practiced in sheep, pigs, goats and poultry. It can also be used in cattle but AI is now commonly used. AdvantagesMore accurate. The male can detect when the female is on heat. Less laborious. There is no need of checking the animals for heat signs. Useful when the heat periods of females cannot be easily detect. DisadvantagesTransmission of breeding diseases. E.g. brucellosis and trichomoniasis. There is a high chance of inbreedingMales will need extra pasture to eat that would have been used by the females. Large males can injure small femalesA lot of semen is wasted since a single ejaculation produces semen that can serve several females. It s cumbersome and expensive to transport a bull from to serve cows.


There is a high chance of inbreedingMales will need extra pasture to eat that would have been used by the females. Large males can injure small femalesA lot of semen is wasted since a single ejaculation produces semen that can serve several females. It s cumbersome and expensive to transport a bull from to serve cows. Bulls moved from one area to another may not perform efficiently due to new environmental conditions. CannotArtificial Insemination A.I This is the introduction of semen into the female s reproductive system by hand using syringes or tube. Semen is collected from a bull using an artificial vagina and a teaser cow. Semen collected is then diluted and used to inseminate many cows. Diluted semen is stored in deep frozen state in liquid nitrogen at -1930C. Special plastic straws called Payets are used to store semen for one insemination. Payets may have different colors indicating the breed for different bulls. Collection of SemenA teaser cow is restrained in a crush. A bull is brought to the teaser cow. When the bull mounts on the cow and directs the penis to the vulva, a person grabs the penis and directs it into an artificial vagina. Since there is warm water all around the artificial vagina, the bull will ejaculate and the semen is collected. Advantages of A.ISemen from one superior bull can be used to serve many cows. It controls the spread of and transmission of breeding diseases and parasites. Sires that are too heavy and that could injure cows only produce semen to serve the cows. Easy to control breeding i.e. one can time when to breed his animals. It is easy to control inbreeding. Reduces the expenses of keeping a bull on pastures and also on drugs. Small scale farmers who cannot afford to buy a superior bull can have the cows served at a low cost. It eliminate dangerous and aggressive bulls on the farmIt is easy to transport semen from one place to another. It is a useful research tool as it helps to study a very large number of offsprings from a single sire. DisadvantagesHarmful characteristics can be spread quickly by one bull to all the offsprings the bull sires. Skilled labour is requiredRequires more human labour than the natural methodLow chances of conception because semen can die due to storage problems and also due to wrong timing of the heat period. 3.


DisadvantagesHarmful characteristics can be spread quickly by one bull to all the offsprings the bull sires. Skilled labour is requiredRequires more human labour than the natural methodLow chances of conception because semen can die due to storage problems and also due to wrong timing of the heat period. 3. Embryo TransplantIn this method eggs ova are harvested from a high quality female, fertilized in tubes and the embryos that develop are transplanted into foster mothers. The female animal that produces the ova is referred to as donor. The one that receives is called the recipient. The donor female is injected with hormones to stimulate production off more than the normal rate at ago. On superior female can produce many offsprings using this method. NB. Whereas A.I increases the number of offsprings sired by one bull, Embryo transplant increases the number of offsprings produced by one female. Advantages of Embryo TransplantPossible to implant embryo from a high quality female to a less superior female and obtain a high performing offspring. Stimulates milk production in females that were not ready to produce milk. A highly productive female can be spread over a large area to benefit many farmers. It is easier to transport embryos in test tubes than the whole animal. Embryos can be stored for long periods awaiting availability of a recipient female. DisadvantagesTechnology is expensiveRequires trained personnel to handleRequires special equipment for fertilization and storage of the embryos. Signs of parturition in:Cattle 270-285 days Pigs 4 months- 3months, 3 weeks, 3 days. RestlessnessVulva reddens and swellsUdder becomes full with a milky fluidSow builds a nest by collecting some bedding at the corner of the pen. Under normal circumstances, farrowing takes place within 4-6 hours of showing the above signs. Rabbits doe 29-33 days The doe starts building a nest by plucking off hair from her bellyLack of appetite i.e. no feeding. Parturition in rabbits is called Kindling. FISH FARMING AQUACULTURE This is the artificial rearing of fish in ponds. Importance of fish farmingCheap and good source of proteins. Can be practiced on limited land. Make fish available nearby when reared in ponds. Source of income to fish farmers.


Can be practiced on limited land. Make fish available nearby when reared in ponds. Source of income to fish farmers. Species of fish farmed in KenyaFresh warm water fish 180c of water e.g. tilapia, carps, black bass, striped bass, cat fish, blue gill, Nile perch etc. Fresh cold water fish 10-150c water such as trout. Requirements for fish farmingWater supply should be free flowing to ensure oxygen supply. Slope of land gentle slope is suitable. In flat land there is no free flow of water. Soil clay soil is best as it does not allow seepage. Soil test procedureProcedure ATake a handful of wet soil. Knead in between fingers and roll into a ribbon. Throw it into the air and catch it. If the ribbon does not break, it is truly clay. Procedure BDig a hole 1m deep by 30cm wide. Fill it with water in the evening and leave overnight, and then fill again in the morning. Good soil should retain water up to the evening of the second day. Establishing a fish pondProcedureSite selection: should meet the following;Topography ie a place where water flows gently from the source. Soil should be clayWater should be available. Security. Site marking: use pegs to mark the channel from the river, the entrance and exit and channel to take water back to the river. Clearing the land. Digging the pond: dig up soil. Topsoil is separated from the other. Upper side is 0.5m deep and lower side is 1.5m deep. Construct the dyke. This is a wall constructed round the pond. Construct the fence round the pond. Constructing the Inlet, outlet and spillwayInlet: This canal or pipe at the entrance of the pond to bring in fresh water. It should be fitted with a screen to prevent entrance of undesirable fish species. Outlet: it is made at the deeper end of the pond. A screen is fitted at the mouth of the outlet to prevent fish swimming away. Spillway: this is channel to remove excess water back to the river. It is made at the top of the dyke at the lower side of the pond. It prevents water from overflowing on the dykes. NB Grass is planted on the dyke and land around it to stabilize the ground. This prevents dyke erosion.


It prevents water from overflowing on the dykes. NB Grass is planted on the dyke and land around it to stabilize the ground. This prevents dyke erosion. The pond is fenced to keep off predators and unauthorized persons. Stocking the PondIntroduce fingerlings young-fish from hatcheries e.g. Sagana, Kiganjo, Kisumu fisheries, Bamburi etc. Transport them in oxygenated polythene bags, milk cans or drums. Provide clean water in the containers at 10 0C temperature. Take care not to injure the fingerlings. Ensure proper stocking space i.e. 5-10 fingerlings per 5m2. Feeding FishThey feed On planktonsGround nut cake, kitchen waste, slaughter house waste, leaves, grass and chicken manure. They should be given enough food. Excess foods pollute and rot the pond. Change of food should be gradual. Manure and fertilizer should be added to encourage growth of planktons. Cropping and Harvesting of FishCroppingThis is the removal of marketable size of fish from the pond. Methods used to catch fishBasketsSpears. Hook and line. Nets. DrainingAdvantages of using seine nets over hook and lineOnly marketable sizes of fish are caught. Fish are not injured in the mouth. Ensure large number of fish is cropped. HarvestingThis is the removal of all the fish from the pond by draining the pond. ProcedureThe inlet is closed stopping water inflow. Normal cropping is done using a sine net to remove all large fish. Outlet is opened to allow water to flow out. A scoop net is used to catch the fingerlings which are kept in holding pond. Water is completely drained for the pond to dry up. Maintenance of the pondRepairing the dyke or any structure on it. Cleaning the pond and remove foreign materials. Plant grass where necessary. Remove undesirable vegetation. Remove silt. Restock after 2-4 weeks by returning the fingerlings to the pond using a scoop net. Control predators. Fish PreservationPractices carried out on fish before preservationClean the fish to remove mud and worms. Remove scales and slime. Open the fish to remove the gut and intestines gutting . Clean the abdominal cavity thoroughly. Keep fish in open containers. Preservation methodsFreezing using deep freezers. Salting; use of salt solution or salt is rubbed.


Keep fish in open containers. Preservation methodsFreezing using deep freezers. Salting; use of salt solution or salt is rubbed. Sun drying: fish are spread on a mat and exposed to strong sunlight. Smoking: they are subjected to a temperature of 700C in a smoking pit house where wood is used as fuel. NB Fish are transported to the market in refrigerated containers to prevent rotting. Fish are exported or sold locally. Appropriate Handling of Livestock During Routine ManagementCarefully avoid inflicting pain on the animals e.g. avoid physical beating. Use of structures when handling animals e.g. crushes, head yoke etc. Use tools for handling e.g. ropes, halters, lead-stick and bull rings appropriately. Use correct method of securing and casting the animalUse little force when casting animals to prevent bone fracturing. Administer drugs safely e.g. by mixing them with food and water e.g. cocciodiostats. Drench carefully for example do not raise the head too high as this could choke the animal. Test equipment for giving the drug to ensure they are working such as the drenching and bolus gun. When injecting, sterilize the equipment or use fresh needles per animal to avoid infection. When spraying, spray in open air during a wind free day to avoid wind drift to unintended places or animas inhaling the chemical. NB Remove dead animals or carcasses from the herd or flock and dispose off properly through burning and disinfect the area in contact with the carcass properly. Weeds and Weed ControlA weed: Any plant growing where it is not required and whose economic disadvantages outweigh the advantages. It is a plant out of place. Or a crop that volunteers to grow without having been planted self setter . Noxious weeds: Dangerous weeds whose cultivation is prohibited by law e.g. bhang. Weeds Identification and classificationIdentificationCommon name Vernacular Botanical nameClassificationBasis:Growth cycle. Plant morphology. Habitat. Growth cycleAnnual weeds: Complete their life cycle in the field within a period of one year or less e.g. Mexican marigold, Black jack, Pig weed, etc. Annual weeds are easily controlled especially before flowering. Biennial weeds: Complete their life cycle in two years. Achieve vegetative growth in the first year and produce seeds in the second year e.g. American wild carrot, spear thistle, ragwort etc.


Biennial weeds: Complete their life cycle in two years. Achieve vegetative growth in the first year and produce seeds in the second year e.g. American wild carrot, spear thistle, ragwort etc. Perennial weeds: Take more than two years or seasons to complete their life cycle. Include: Sedges, Lantana, kikuyu grass, Wandering jew, couch grass, Sodom apple. Etc. Plant MorphologyNarrow Leaved weeds: Are grass weeds e.g. Couch, Spear, Setaria, eleusine etc. Grass weeds may be perennial or annual. Broad Leaved weeds: E.g. Black Jack, Oxalis, Lantana, Pig weeds, Devil s horse whip etc. May be annual or perennial. Competitive Ability of WeedsFactors Contributing to competitive ability of weeds:Produce large quantities of seeds. Remain viable in the soil for a long time awaiting conducive germination conditions. Some weed seeds are easily and successfully dispersed e.g. Fleabane conyza spp has developed structures used in wind dispersal. Ability to propagate vegetatively e.g. Couch grass and Wandering Jew. Elaborate and extensive rooting system. Ability to survive where there is limited nutrient supply. Short life cycle i.e. can complete their life cycle with restricted rain regime. Harmful Effects of weedsCompete with crops for nutrients, space, light, soil moisture therefore reduce crop yields. Parasitic to cultivated crops e.g. witch weed striga . Lower the quality of agricultural produce e.g. Mexican marigold gives an undesirable flavor to milk when dairy cows feed on it. Devil s horse whip, black Jack, Forget-me not, bristly fox toilet get attached to sheep wool thus lowering its quality. Some weeds are poisonous to man and livestock. E.g. Thorn apple ,Sodom apple when unripe Some act as alternate hosts for insect pests and others for diseases e.g. Black jack for Aphids, Subukia weed, Mallow, flower of the hour etc hosts cotton strainers. Oxalis, wild oats alternate rusts disease. Allelopathic: Produce poisonous substances that suppress the growth or germination of cultivated plants they contact e.g. Couch grass is allelopathic to Maize. Block irrigation channels i.e. make it difficult for water to flow freely in irrigated land. Affect fishing e.g.


Block irrigation channels i.e. make it difficult for water to flow freely in irrigated land. Affect fishing e.g. Salvinia and water hyacinth by blocking navigation and depriving fish and aquatic animals of oxygen dissolved in water. Lower quality of pastures e.g. tick berry suppress pasture undergrowth. Nut grass and Manyata grass reduce palatability of herbage and carrying capacity of pasture fields. Irritate workers thus reducing their efficiency e.g. Double thorn, stinging nettle, devil s horse whip etc. Benefits of weeds to farmersEdible to both man and livestock e.g. pig weed, wandering Jew, grass weeds etc. Medicinal effects e.g. Sodom apple, stinging nettle, sow thistle.etc. Act as soil cover, preventing soil capping due to impact of rain drops. Development of an impervious layer on the soil surface Add organic matter to the soil on decomposition. Leguminous weeds add nitrogen in the soil. Weed Control MethodsDictated by weather condition, type of weed, capital available and effects on the environment. Include;Mechanical weed control. Cultural weed control. Biological weed control. Legislative weed control. Chemical weed control. Mechanical weed controlInvolves:i Tillage cultivation Desiccate the weeds by exposing the roots to the air. Buries weeds thus killing them. Hand tools or tractor implements are used. Done during dry season to ensure better drying of weeds. Weeds are destroyed before they produce seeds to break their life cycle. Advantages of tillage in weed controlCheap and therefore good for small scale farmers. Allow infiltration of water thus minimize soil erosion. Earthing up is done during tillage which encourages root growth. Crop residue is incorporated in the soil during tillage. DisadvantagesPulverizes the soil thus destroying soil structure. Creates suitable conditions for weeds to germinate. Laborious and expensive in large scale. Leads to water loss, soil erosion and damage to crop roots. Does not effectively control perennial weeds. Ii Slashing mowing : Is the mechanical removal of shoots from weeds especially annual weeds when done repeatedly. Iii Uprooting: Done where weeds are scattered or where crops are too close to allow mechanical cultivation. Cultural weed controlAre crop husbandry practices carried out on the farm without use of chemicals. Include:i Mulching: smothers weeds thus preventing weed growth.


Iii Uprooting: Done where weeds are scattered or where crops are too close to allow mechanical cultivation. Cultural weed controlAre crop husbandry practices carried out on the farm without use of chemicals. Include:i Mulching: smothers weeds thus preventing weed growth. Ii Cover cropping; Smother the weeds. Iii Crop rotation: Weeds associated with certain crops will not germinate or grow when rotated e.g. striga in cereal crops and sugar cane. Iv Use of clean planting materials: Prevent introduction of weeds into the farm. V Proper spacing: Creates little space for weed growth or form a canopy which suppresses weeds. Vi Clean seed bed: Starts off crops on clean bed to effectively compete with weeds. Vii Flooding: Discourages growth of all non aquatic weeds. Biological weed control:Is the use of living organisms to control weeds. Include:i Use of livestock: e.g. goats in coconut and cashew nut plantations. Ii Use of certain weed eating fish to control aquatic weeds. Iii Use of Moths to control cacti. Iv Beetles to control water hyacinth. AdvantagesCheap. Not poisonous or pollute the environment. Less laborious. Does not kill soil micro-organisms. Does not destroy soil structure. Legislative weed control:-Involves government laws and acts which prevent the introduction of noxious weeds in a country or the spreading of certain weeds from one part of the country to another. Imported materials such as seeds, food and clothes are tested to certify they are weed free. Limitations:Enforcement of laws is difficult. Only sample of materials are checked while the bulk of the material may have some weeds. Noxious weed law; requires noxious weeds to be destroyed or not cultivated e.g. bhang cannabis sativa . Chemical weed control:Herbicides are the chemicals used to control weeds. Ways in which herbicides work to kill the weeds. Inhibition of nitrogen metabolism: some interfere with nucleic acids D.N.A, R.N.A e.g. Atrazines which increase or reduce nitrogen metabolism. Glyphosate interfere with enzyme functions. Kill the cell: The herbicides penetrate the cell wall, destroy it and enter cell cytoplasm, killing the cell e.g. Diquate, dinosel and oils. These are contact herbicides. Causing abnormal tissue development: Include twisting, gall formation.


Diquate, dinosel and oils. These are contact herbicides. Causing abnormal tissue development: Include twisting, gall formation. Some herbicides interfere with plant growth e.g. phenoxy acetic acids, benzoic acids, 2, 4-D and M.C.P.A. Inhibiting photosynthesis: Some herbicides interfere with chlorophyll formation e.g. Atrzines, Simazines, Duron, Linuron, and Uracils. Inhibiting Respiration: some herbicides block movement of materials from the site of manufacture to other areas. They therefore cause acute poisoning e.g. Dinozebs. Classification of herbicidesInclude:FormulationTime of application. Mode of actionEnvironmental factors. Selectivity. I FormulationIs the physical form of herbicides e.g. Liquids: are soluble in water or oils. Are highly concentrated or toxic e.g. dalapon, paraquat. Wettable powders: Finely ground particles. Form suspensions with water before application. A spreader is applied in the suspension to prevent flocculation. Constant agitation of the particles also avoids clustering. Include: atrazines, simazines and duron. Granules: Granule form. Control water weeds e.g. duron. Ii Time of application: when applied at different stages of weed growth, herbicides are effective. Include:Pre-emergence herbicides: Are applied soon after crop seeds have been sown but before they emerge. Kill the germinated weeds such that crops germinate in a weed-free environment. Include: atrazines and simazines. Post-emergence Herbicides: Are applied after crop germination or transplantation or at different stages of crop growth. Include; 2,4-D, M.C.P.A, paraquat, Glyphosate etc. Iii Mode of Action:Include:Contact Herbicides: Kill only the parts of the plant with which it comes into contact. Translocated Herbicides Systemic: Kill the whole plant even if it comes into contact with only a small part of it i.e. they are absorbed into the plant and translocated to all parts of the plant. Iv Environmental factors: Affect effectiveness of herbicides. Include:Wind: blow away splash wash to unintended places while decreasing chemical concentration to the intended places. Rain: Dilute or wash away the chemical to non-toxic levels. Leaches and reach herbicides to roots of deep rooted plants thus killing them.


Include:Wind: blow away splash wash to unintended places while decreasing chemical concentration to the intended places. Rain: Dilute or wash away the chemical to non-toxic levels. Leaches and reach herbicides to roots of deep rooted plants thus killing them. Soil: some absorb and retain more herbicides than others and therefore require more doses to be effective. Light: Increase in light intensity increases the rate of light of light absorption and photosynthesis by plants hence increasing absorption and translocation of herbicides and therefore causing faster killing of plants. Some herbicides are decomposed by high light intensity hence become less effective. Temperature: increase translocation hence absorption of more herbicides and therefore death of plants. V SelectivityInclude:Selective. Non-selective herbicides. Selective herbicide: Injures one plant and allows the other to escape injury. Selectivity of herbicides depend on susceptibility and tolerance of each plant species. Non-selective herbicide: Injures all kinds of plants because it interferes with photosynthesis. Factors Affecting Selectivity and Effectiveness of HerbicidesStage of growth of the plant: young plants are more susceptible to herbicides action because of their high growth activity. Physiological metabolic factors: beans have a poor rate of translocation of 2,4-D. maize is able to neutralize the toxic levels of 2,4-D to less toxic 2,4-B. Herbicides characteristics: Herbicides which interfere with photosynthesis are non- selective. Concentration: Under high concentration herbicides kill all kinds of plants. Formulation: Oil formulations are more toxic to plants. Method of application; High selectivity is attained by placing the herbicide where the weed is and away from the crop. Plant morphology and Anatomy:Morphological and anatomical characteristics of weeds that affect selectivity:Leaf angle: Leaf angles which are inclined e.g. grasses are less susceptible as compared to horizontal angles such as dicots. Nature of leaf surface: Plants with thick and waxy cuticles and surfaces retain less herbicides e.g. cactus, wandering jew. Differential heights of the plants: Shorter weeds than crops or shorter crops than weeds, selectivity are attained e.g. spraying weeds under coffee bushes. Location of growing points: Dicots are more susceptible to herbicides because their growing points and terminal buds are more exposed than in grasses.


Differential heights of the plants: Shorter weeds than crops or shorter crops than weeds, selectivity are attained e.g. spraying weeds under coffee bushes. Location of growing points: Dicots are more susceptible to herbicides because their growing points and terminal buds are more exposed than in grasses. Difference in rooting system: Shallow rooted plants are more susceptible to herbicides than deep rooted which require herbicides with long residue effect. Specialized structures: Plants with underground structures such as rhizomes and bulbs e.g. sedges and oxalis are not easily killed by herbicides. Safety Precautions in Use of ChemicalsRead manufacturer s instructions. Wear protective clothing e.g. overall, breathing masks, gloves, and boots. Avoid inhaling herbicide i.e. not spray against wind, not smoke and wear a breathing mask. Bath thoroughly after handling the chemical and not eat before bathing. Do not unblock blocked nozzles by blowing with the mouth. Avoid spraying against the wind not spray on windy days. Avoid spilling herbicides on pastures and fodder crops. Dispose of empty containers and left overs e.g. by burying them. Do not wash spraying equipment in water sources used by livestock and humans. Store chemicals out of reach of children and away from food. Wash equipment thoroughly. Advantages of using HerbicidesRequire less labour than mechanical cultivation. Adapted to control of bothersome weeds e.g. Couch grass and sedges. Does not disturb crop roots and underground structures. Makes control of weeds in certain crops easier e.g. wheat, burley, carrots. Efficient in both wet and dry soil conditions as compared to mechanical cultivation. Maintains soil structure. ,Convenient to use in certain crops e.g. sisal and sugarcane and weeds such as double thorn and stinging nettle which injure farmers. Cheaper than manual or mechanical cultivation on large scale farming . DisadvantagesRequire skilled labour in mixing and application. Poisonous to environment and the user. Some herbicides have long residue effects pollutes environment . Expensive Uneconomical in small scale. Revision questionsWhat is a weed? Name two poisonous weeds. State 5 harmful effects of weeds to farm crops. State 5 methods of controlling weeds. Give 5 factors that affect selectivity and effectiveness of herbicides. State 4 problems encountered when using herbicides in the farm. How does crop rotation control weeds? State three beneficial effects of weeds.


State 4 problems encountered when using herbicides in the farm. How does crop rotation control weeds? State three beneficial effects of weeds. Classify herbicides. State 5 ways in which herbicides work to kill weeds. State 3 factors that determine the rate of herbicide application. A What name is given to the chemicals used to control weeds? B Explain the correct procedure for mixing gramoxone in a sprayer for weed control. 13. Explain any 4 factors contributing to the competitive ability of weeds. 14. State 3 characteristics of annual weeds. 15. State 4 effects of water hyacinth attack. 16. State 3 limitations of mechanical weed control method. 17. Explain any 4 cultural methods of weed control in a field of maize. 18. Describe the classification of herbicides on the basis of formulation. 19. A Name 4 biological agents used in weed control. B State 2 advantages of biological wed control. 20. State 3 factors which make herbicides cause crop injury or poor weed control. 21. State 4 factors to consider when choosing a method of weed control. GRAZING SYSTEMSThere are three main grazing systemsRotational grazingContinuous grazingZero grazing1 Rotational GrazingThis refers to practice of allowing livestock to feed on a part of pasture for a period down to certain level before they are moved to the next. This gives time for pasture to properly regenerate. Advantages of Rotational GrazingLivestock make maximum use of pastureReduces the build up of parasites and diseases. Animal waste is distributed evenly in all fields paddocks. Pasture area is given time to re-grow before its grazed on again. Excess pasture can be harvested for conservationIts possible to apply fertilizers in parts of the pastures are not in useIt facilitates reseeding and weeding. The methods of rotational grazing include paddocking, strip grazing and tethering. A PaddockingA paddock is a fenced portion of a pasture in which animals are restricted for grazing. Paddocking means grazing livestock in one paddock for a short period and then moving to another. The size of the paddocks depends on the carrying capacity of the pasture. There should be a watering point at each paddock. A water trough is placed between two paddocks so that animals can drink water from either paddock. Paddocking saves herding labour.


There should be a watering point at each paddock. A water trough is placed between two paddocks so that animals can drink water from either paddock. Paddocking saves herding labour. However, it is very expensive to construct. B Strip GrazingDone by allowing livestock to graze on restricted portion of the pasture at a time then moving them to the next. It s done on very high quality pastures. Electric fences can be used to enclose animals in a given strip of pasture. Where animals are not many herding may be done to restrict them to stay within the strips. Temporary fences may also be used instead of the electric fences. However, the system is quite expensive. C Tethering-This involves tying the animal to a post with a rope such that it feeds within a restricted area. -The rope may also have a metal ring that slides along a strong wire supported by strong poles. 2 Continuous Grazing Herding In this type of grazing, the pasture is not allowed any resting period. This method can easily result in overgrazing if the stocking rate is not controlled. It s common in the semi-arid areas. 3 Zero Grazing Stall Feeding -This is the practice of rearing animals in a permanent feeding enclosure known as the stall. Feed is cut and taken to the animals in the stalls. -They are also provided with plenty of clean water and mineral licks. AdvantagesThere is quick accumulation of manureAnimals make use of the feeds without wastageAnimals produce high yields due to less wastage of energy. It s easy to control diseases and parasitesIt requires little landIt allows higher stocking rateDisadvantagesHigh initial capital is requiredHigh management skills are neededNeed a lot of labourDiseases can easily spread. REVISION QUIZUse of lethal temperature. Suffocation. This is used in the Cyprus bins where CO2 is introduced to suffocate pests. Flooding. This can be used c to control pests such as armyworms and cutworms. Moles can also be killed through flooding. Proper drying of the produce. This makes grains hard for pests to penetrate and discourages the3 growth of moulds. Grains should be dried up to a moisture content of 12 Physical destruction of pests. Hand picking and trapping can be used to control pests. Use of scarecrows.


Grains should be dried up to a moisture content of 12 Physical destruction of pests. Hand picking and trapping can be used to control pests. Use of scarecrows. They scare large animals and birds out of the farm. Use of physical barriers. They include use of fences to control large animals and rat proofing in stores. Use of electromagnetic radiation. Some wavelengths of electromagnetic radiations can be used to deactivate enzymes in some insect pests. Some pests are attracted by certain wavelengths such as moths are attracted by ultra-violet rays and aphids by yellow light. Once attracted, heat or chemicals can then be used to destroy them. X-rays can also be used to control some storage pests. 3. Cultural Methods. This is the use of all the good farming practices to minimise and discourage pests from attacking the crops. Cultural practices do not eradicate or kill pets but alter the environment for pest s survival and discourage pest attack. These practices include the following. Tillage. This exposes soil borne pests to their natural enemies or exposes them to the hot sun, which kills them. Weed control. Some weeds act as alternative hosts to crop pests. Removal of such weeds reduces pest infestation. Early planting. This enables crops to establish earlier before pests multiply to large numbers. Burning of crop residue. This destroys pests and their eggs reducing further attack on the next crop. Crop rotation. This interferes with the life cycle of pests reducing their populationUse of clean planting materials. This ensures that no pests or their eggs are introduced into the field. Planting resistant crop varieties. E.g. goose necked sorghum reduces attack by birds. Closed season. This is where a particular crop is not grown for a season to control a particular pest such a not growing maize to control maize stalk bores. Crop nutrition application of fertilizer. This encourages vigorous and healthy growth of crops, which can tolerate and escape pest attack. Pruning. This discourages conditions, which may favour the breeding grounds of pests in crops. Timely harvesting. Crops can be harvested at the right time to avoid pest attack e.g. overripe fruits encourage attack by fruit flies. Proper spacing. This discourages quick spread of pests. Growing of trap crop. This is the growing of a crop to trap certain crop pests either before or at the same time with the main crop. Irrigation. Overhead irrigation controls aphids in cabbages. 4. Chemical Control. This involves the use of pesticides to control pests.


4. Chemical Control. This involves the use of pesticides to control pests. Pesticides influence the pets in three ways. By direct poisoning. By inhaling. By ingesting. The pesticide used should beEfficientSelectiveCheapPersistentSafe to the user and the environment. Classification of PesticidesFormulation. E.g. soluble powders, wettable powders, fumigants, dust, liquids, granules, emulsions etc. Target pest. InsescticidesNematocidesRodenticides. Fungicides. Mode of action. They may be classified according to the way they function into the following. Stomach poisons. These only kill those pests, which consume the sprayed crop with the chemical, hence are selective. Systemic poisons. They are circulated to all parts of the pest once it has eaten the sprayed part of a plant. Contact poisons. They kill the pests when they are absorbed in the body through the skin or cuticle. They are not selective and may kill many beneficial organisms such as predators, pollinators, decomposers, birds etc. Suffocants. They kill by interfering with the breathing system after being inhaled. Anti-feedants. They inhibit feeding on insects and other pests thus starving them to death. Repellants. They keep the pest away from the plant. Factors affecting the Efficiency of PesticidesConcentration. Correct concentration should be used when diluting the pesticide, as it is the most effective. Timing of Application. They should be applied at the stage of development when the pest is most susceptible to the pesticide. Weather conditions at the Time of application. If the rain falls immediately after application of a pesticide, it may wash off or dilute the pesticide thereby reducing its effectiveness. Persistence. If a pesticide can remain effective for long, then the better. This ensures that more pests can be controlled. Advantages of Chemical ControlMethod is faster compared to other methods such as crop rotation, field hygiene etc. Most pesticides have rapid knock-down effect hence the method is more reliable and predictable. DisadvantagesExpensive. Most are not environmental friendly since they are toxic to man and livestockThey require care and skill when handling and applying them. Most are non-selective and therefore they kill useful insects such as pollinators and predators. Pests establish resistance to pesticides if they are used continuously against them. E.g. DDT. 5.


E.g. DDT. 5. Biological Pest ControlThis involves the use of a living organism, which is a natural enemy of the pest. The method is environmental friendly but it can be very slow. Crop Diseases And Their ControlDiseaseIt is a condition that interferes, impairs or disturbs the normal performance of an organism. A disease is a deviation from good health. Harmful Effects of Crop DiseasesLowers crop yield. Poor quality products hence reduced market value. They cause food poisoning by producing toxic substances such as Aspergillus flavus in maize produces Afflatoxin; Ergot in wheat and barley causes nerve endings. Increase the cost of production. Classification of Plant DiseasesFungal diseasesViral diseasesBacterial diseasesNutritional diseases deficiency Other causes. 1. Fungal DiseasesThey are either parasitic or saprophytic. This gives rise to the following categories. Obligate parasitic fungi. They completely depend on other living organisms for food. They are found in plant parts such as leaves, roots, stems, fruits etc. Facultative parasitic fungi. They can live on both the living and dead tissues. Saprophytic fungi. They live as decomposers on dead decaying plant and animal remains. They are beneficial in nutrient recycling. Parasitic fungi are grouped into three:Those with all the mycelia vegetative part and the fruiting bodies on the surface of the host such as Erysiphe spp, which causes mildews. Those with the mycelia inside the plant tissues but the fruiting bodies on the surface of the host such asPhytophthora infestans. Late blight in tomatoes and potatoesPuccinia spp. Rusts. Ustillago spp. Headsmut. Those having the mycelia and fruiting bodies all inside the host. E.g. Fusarium spp causing Fusarium wilts. Examples of Fungal1.Late BlightCaused by Phytophthora infestans .the disease affects most members of the solanaceae family such as Irish potatoes and tomatoes. The fungi are parasitic and feeds by sending short hyphae called haustoria into the cells of the host. Haustoria absorb plant nutrients manufactured food from the plant cells resulting in the death of the cell. The fungi reproduce by spore formation, which are dispersed by wind and raindrops.


The fungi are parasitic and feeds by sending short hyphae called haustoria into the cells of the host. Haustoria absorb plant nutrients manufactured food from the plant cells resulting in the death of the cell. The fungi reproduce by spore formation, which are dispersed by wind and raindrops. It spreads very quickly during warm moist conditions. SymptomsRapid drying of the leaves forming dry patches necrotic lesions on leaves and fruits. Affected fruits appear rotten and fall off prematurely. ControlSpraying with Bordeaux mixture and other copper based fungicides. 2. RustsCause Puccinia spp. They attack the leaves and stems of most cereal crops. P. Sorghi - sorghumP. graminis. MaizeSymptomsInfected leaves have red to brown pustules hence reduced photosynthetic are and low yields. Crops appear rusty. ControlSpraying with Bordeaux mixture and other copper based fungicides3. SmutsCause Ustillago spp. U. scitiminea sugar caneU. nuda - wheatU. maidis- Maize. This produces large number of black spores, which forms black masses on maize tassels and maize cob. ControlHot water treatment of the seeds. Use of certified seedsCrop rotation. Field hygiene e.g. rogueing and proper disposal of previous crop residue. 4. Coffee Berry Disease CBD Cause Colletotricum coffeanum. It attacks the flowers, leaves and berries. Flowers and leaves have dark brown spots. Spots on leaves develop along the margin and later spread to the rest of the leaf causing defoliation. The disease attacks both green and ripe berries. Attacked green berries fail to form beans and are hollow. Attacked ripe berries have sunken wounds and are difficult to pulp process. ControlSpraying with appropriate copper based fungicides. Open pruning. Resistant varieties e.g. Ruiru 11. Other Fungal DiseasesDamping off. Pythium spp. Powdery mildew. Root rots Armillaria spp. Downey mildew Peranospara spp. Early blight Alternaria spp. Anthracnose Colletotricum lindemuthianum2. Viral DiseasesAll viruses are parasitic and very small. They are only able to reproduce and multiply in living tissues.


Anthracnose Colletotricum lindemuthianum2. Viral DiseasesAll viruses are parasitic and very small. They are only able to reproduce and multiply in living tissues. When outside living tissues, they form spores in cysts, which remain inactive until they get into a living tissue. They are therefore obligate parasites. Viral infections interfere with important life processes of plant such as photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, and nitrogen utilisation. Symptoms of Viral infectionsLeaf chlorosis loss of chlorophyll. Leaf curling. Mosaics production of light green patches on leaves. Malformations distortions of plant parts e.g. galls swellings , small leaves etc. Rosetting production of abnormally short nodes hence stunting. NB Insect vectors such as aphids and mealy bug transmit viral diseases. Infected vegetative parts such as sugar cane cuttings also transmit viral diseases. Examples of Viral diseasesMaize streak. Formation of white yellow stripes on leaves parallel to midrib. Greening disease attacks leaves of citrus. Tristeza attacks citrus trees. The leaves fall off and there is dying of twigs. Cassava mosaic -Brown streak of cassavaPotato leaf rollTobaccoGroundnut rosette. Viral diseases are controlled by controlling the vectors. C. Bacterial DiseasesBacteria are facultative parasites. They are single celled and microscopic. Not all bacteria are harmful. Some are beneficial to man e.g. Rhizobium spp which is a nitrogen fixing bacteria. They may be transmitted through insects, wind, raindrop splashes, manures, seeds, irrigation water, cultivation implements and pruning knives. They enter plants through openings such as stomata, lenticels and wounds. Symptoms of Bacterial DiseasesWilting even when water is in adequate amount due to blockage of xylems. Cankers results into the death of plant tissues. Gall formation in the infected tissues. I Bacterial Blight of Coffee BBC Cause Pseudomonas syringe. Bacteria enter plant through wounds and natural openings. It s common in areas experiencing hailstorms. SymptomsDark necrotic lesions with water soaked margins on affected parts. Shoot die back. Cankers on mature bark and wood killing the whole plant. ControlSpraying chemical eg.


Shoot die back. Cankers on mature bark and wood killing the whole plant. ControlSpraying chemical eg. Supanil, before, during and after the flowering periods especially during the wet weather. Bacterial wilt Pseudomonas solanacearum Attack potatoes, tomatoes and other solanaceae plantsAffected plants wilt even when the soil is moist. Leaves droop and plants eventually dieHigh temperature accompanied by wet conditions favour the disease. Black arm of cottonBlack rot of cabbageHalo blight of beansNutritional disordersWhen crops do not get enough nutrients, deficiency symptoms appear egYellowing of leavesDrying of leavesFalling of leaves, flowers and fruitsStunted growthDeath. E OTHER CAUSESFlooding. During flooding ammonia may be formed. Since ammonia is toxic, it has burning effect to plants. ChemicalToxic chemical compounds in the soil may be absorbed by the plants leading to death of the plant eg. Cyanides. Poor weather. Extreme day and night temperature may be injurious to the crop. Eg very cold temperature causes frost injury in tea. StressStressful conditions on the plant such as irregular watering may causes physiological disorders such as blossom end rot in tomatoes. Control of crop diseasesCultural methodsThis involves the use of crop husbandry practices that discourages the outbreak of diseases without the use of chemicals. They include;Planting resistant crop varieties that can withstand the effect of certain diseases without lowering the yields eg Ruiru II is a coffee variety resistant to CBD. Practicing proper spacing of crop. Overcrowding results to quick spread of diseases. Use of health planting materials. Some diseases are seed borne and can effectively be controlled by use of artificial seeds for planting. Practicing field hygiene eg burning of crop residue destroying infected plants etc. Drying of cereals and pulses to a moisture content of 12 13 before storage. This discourages attack by moulds fungi Heat treatments of some planting materials eg treating sugar cane cutting with water at 500c for 30 minutes control ratoon stunting disease effectively. Proper pruning of crop destroys the micro- climate that may have encouraged build up of diseases causing organisms. Chemical controlChemical control should be practised only when all other methods have proved to be ineffective and when it s economical.


This discourages attack by moulds fungi Heat treatments of some planting materials eg treating sugar cane cutting with water at 500c for 30 minutes control ratoon stunting disease effectively. Proper pruning of crop destroys the micro- climate that may have encouraged build up of diseases causing organisms. Chemical controlChemical control should be practised only when all other methods have proved to be ineffective and when it s economical. Chemical control measures include:Seed dressingThis is the application of fungicides before planting seeds. The fungicides prevent attack on the planted seeds. SprayingThis is the application of chemical such as fungicides using a sprayer. Soil fumigation. This is the application of chemical fumigants in the soil. The chemical are usually in dust or granule form and are mixed with the soil to kill soil borne diseases causing organisms in the soil eg in the control of Bacterial wilt in potatoes. Advantage of chemicalsChemical act faster in controlling diseases. Effective Chemical requires less labour in application. Disadvantages of chemicalsExpensiveRequires skills in applicationToxic to humans and livestockPollutes environmentSome do not break down easilyc .Legislative methodThis involves imposing of regulations and laws in cases of diseases outbreaks to prevent the introduction and spreading of diseases. REVISION QUESTIONS1 Below is a diagram of a bird which is a crop pest. I Identify the bird mk ii State two ways by which the bird causes loss in crops. 1mk iii State four methods which are used to control the pest. 2mks 2. Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow. A Identify the fungal disease indicated above b State the causal organism of the disease identified above 1mk c State two symptoms of the disease above lmk d State one control measure for the disease in the control field lmk 3.The diagram below shows a kale seedling attacked by a pest.


1mk iii State four methods which are used to control the pest. 2mks 2. Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow. A Identify the fungal disease indicated above b State the causal organism of the disease identified above 1mk c State two symptoms of the disease above lmk d State one control measure for the disease in the control field lmk 3.The diagram below shows a kale seedling attacked by a pest. A Identify the pest. 1mk b What damage does the pest cause to the crop? 1mk c State one method of controlling the pest. 1mk d Name two other insect pests other than the one identified in a above that attack kale in the field. 2mks 4.Describe the physical and cultural measures employed in the control of pests in crop production. 20 marks 5. Given the pest shown in the diagram belowName the barrier you would put on a grain store to control the pestApart from the use of barriers list four other physical methods of pest control in and out store. 2mks 6 a Identify farm storage pests shown below 1 mks b Name crop products attacked by each of the above pests 1 mks c Name one chemical control of the above pests mk 7. Define the following terms as used in crop pests and diseases; 2mks a Economic Injury Level. EIL b Integrated Pest Management IPM 8. Below is an illustration of a maize cob attacked by smut disease. Study: it carefully and answer thequestions that follow:a Beside w hat is visible on the maize cob. State two other symptoms of the disease. 2mks b State three control measures of the above disease. 3mks 9. Study the crop pest illustrated below. A Identify the crop pest. 1mk b State two effects of the above pest. 1mk c State three methods of controlling the pests. 3mks 10 Describe the methods of disease control in crops under the following headings.


1mk b State two effects of the above pest. 1mk c State three methods of controlling the pests. 3mks 10 Describe the methods of disease control in crops under the following headings. Cultural methods 14 Marks Chemical methods 6 Marks 11 The diagram below represents crop pests a Identify the pest ... mk b Name Two crops that are attacked by the above pests 1mk c Give three control measures 1 mks ANSWERS1. I Identify-A-Weaver bird 1x mkii 2 ways bird causes damagei Eats grass2 Causes the grains to fall off3 Exposes maize cobs to rain leading to rotting4 Strips the leaves 2x 1mk 2. A Blight 1x mk b phytophthora infestans 1x1 1 mk - fruits rot and fall prematurely-Brown lesions on stems, leaves and fruits 2x 1 mk d Spraying using fungicides Bordeaux mixture lx1 mk 3.a -Cut worm . 1 x 1 1mk b Cuts the stem of seedlings 1 x 1 1mk c -Application of appropriate pesticide dust soil with aldrin and rake into soil. 1 x 1 1mk d i Aphidsii Sawfly. 2 x 1 2mks 4.Physical and cultural measures employed in control of pests in crop productionPhysical methodsPhysical destruction of pests which involve hand picking or trapping and killing them eg moles in the gardenFlooding-some pests like cut worms and army worms will be drawn if flooded. Flooding may be used to kill underground pests like molesProper drying of the produce-drying of grains make them hard for pests to break and penetrate hence discouraging the growth of mould. Grains should be dried to moisture content of about 11-13 moisture contentUse of electromagnetic radiation-certain wavelength of electromagnetic radiation like radioactive.


I Identify-A-Weaver bird 1x mkii 2 ways bird causes damagei Eats grass2 Causes the grains to fall off3 Exposes maize cobs to rain leading to rotting4 Strips the leaves 2x 1mk 2. A Blight 1x mk b phytophthora infestans 1x1 1 mk - fruits rot and fall prematurely-Brown lesions on stems, leaves and fruits 2x 1 mk d Spraying using fungicides Bordeaux mixture lx1 mk 3.a -Cut worm . 1 x 1 1mk b Cuts the stem of seedlings 1 x 1 1mk c -Application of appropriate pesticide dust soil with aldrin and rake into soil. 1 x 1 1mk d i Aphidsii Sawfly. 2 x 1 2mks 4.Physical and cultural measures employed in control of pests in crop productionPhysical methodsPhysical destruction of pests which involve hand picking or trapping and killing them eg moles in the gardenFlooding-some pests like cut worms and army worms will be drawn if flooded. Flooding may be used to kill underground pests like molesProper drying of the produce-drying of grains make them hard for pests to break and penetrate hence discouraging the growth of mould. Grains should be dried to moisture content of about 11-13 moisture contentUse of electromagnetic radiation-certain wavelength of electromagnetic radiation like radioactive. Radiation may be used to deactivate enzymes in some insects and pestsUse of lethal temperature-this involves the use of extreme temperatures either too cold or too hot conditions to control pests by inhibiting their survival i.e. use of hot water to control pink ball wormUse of physical barriers-this include use of materials that prevent pests from getting to the crop i.e. rat guard metal plates on posts of raised granaries.


Radiation may be used to deactivate enzymes in some insects and pestsUse of lethal temperature-this involves the use of extreme temperatures either too cold or too hot conditions to control pests by inhibiting their survival i.e. use of hot water to control pink ball wormUse of physical barriers-this include use of materials that prevent pests from getting to the crop i.e. rat guard metal plates on posts of raised granaries. Construction of fences around the field and trenches to control large animalsSuffocation-has been used in Hermetic Cyprus bins where build up of carbon iv oxide is used to suffocate pestsUse of scarecrows-are used in scaring large animals and birds out of the farmCultural methodClosed season-the period in which a susceptible crop is not grown in order to control a certain pest or group of pests. During this period crop residues are collected and disposed off to ensure destruction of the pest. Timely planting-early planting of crops are more likely to escape pest attack than late planted ones eg maize stalk borersTimely harvesting- some storage pests like grain weevils attack the crop while in the field therefore early harvesting will enable the crop escape the attackProper tillage- field cultivation will expose the pests which are soil borne like white grubs. The pest is exposed and scorched by the sun or eaten by birds and other predatorsPlanting resistant crop varieties-plant breeders have developed plants which have natural protective mechanisms against pest attack i.e Goose necked sorghum against birdsField hygiene- this means keeping the field free from any plant materials harbouring pests i.e. Rogueing and removal of crop residues from the fieldAlteration of environmental conditions-creations of certain micro-climate that is not conducive to some insects i.e. open pruning in coffee to discourage antestia bugs, mulching reduces thripsTrap cropping-a crop which is planted before or together with the main crop purposely for attracting away from the main crops. The pest is then killed by either spraying with chemicals, ploughing the crop or rogueing. Crop rotation-crops which are more preferred by a particular pest are rotated with those that are not or less preferred i.e. groundnuts and potatoes that control nematodes. This starves the pest to death. Destruction of alternative hosts-some weeds act as alternative host to crop pests.


Groundnuts and potatoes that control nematodes. This starves the pest to death. Destruction of alternative hosts-some weeds act as alternative host to crop pests. The removal of such weeds reduces pest infestationCrop nutrition- application of fertilizers and manure makes the crops to grow strong and be able to resist and escape attack. Use of clean planting materials- this prevent introduction and spreading of crop pests. Seeds, suckers and crowns should be free from pestsProper spacing- proper spacing makes it difficult for pests to move from plants to plant while close spacing in groundnuts discourage AphidsUse of organic manure-FYM, compost manure has been found to discourage various pests ie eel wormsIrrigation-overhead irrigation is able to control Aphids in cabbages20x1 20 marks6. A Identify farm storage pests shown below. A Maize weevil b Bean weevil bean bruchid Flour weevil. B Name crop products attacked by each of the above pests. A Maize wheat barley sorghum grains; b Bean bonavist bean butter bean seeds; Maize wheat barley sorghum millet flour c Name one chemical control of the above pests. Use of actellic powder on dry grains and seeds of maize and beansRespectively primiphos-methy organophosphate. 1 2 mark it is the level at which the tolerance of a plant has been exceeded. 1mk It is the combination of many methods to effectively control pests. 1mk 8 a -Severe dwarfness-Increased tillering b -Planting resistant varieties-Use of certified seeds-Field hygiene-Crop rotation9 a -Maize weevil b -Makes tunnels beneath the seed coat-Make circular holes on the surface of the grain c -Dusting maize cob with malaltion-Fumigate maize with methyl bromide-Proper storage hygiene-Ensure grains are stored at correct moisture content10 a Cultural methods of crop disease control. Using healthy planting materials to prevent the crops from being infected by seed borne diseases. Practicing field hygiene such as a burning crop residue using clean implements, clean weeding to destroy micro-habitat for diseases. Proper seedbed preparation e.g. Control of root rot disease.


Practicing field hygiene such as a burning crop residue using clean implements, clean weeding to destroy micro-habitat for diseases. Proper seedbed preparation e.g. Control of root rot disease. Proper spacing to control dumping off diseases especially in nursery bed. Heat treatment to control ratoon stunting disease in sugar cane. Proper drying of cereals and pulses for proper storage. Use of disease resistant varieties e.g. Ruiru II, Resistant to CBDAny 7, 1 for mentioning and 1 for explaining 7 x 2 14 marksb Chemical disease control in cropsThrough seed dressing application of fungicides on seeds before planting. Sol fumigation application of fumigants in soil to control soil borne diseases. Spraying application of fungicides insecticides. Any three 1 for mentioning and 1 for explaining 3 x 2 6 marksFORM FOUR AGRICULTURE NOTESLIVESTOCK PRODUCTION V POULTRY PRODUCTION IntroductionThe term poultry refers to all kinds of domestic birds kept for meat or eggs production. They include turkeys, ducks, geese, guinea fowls, chicken, ostriches and pigeons. The management of poultry aims at production of high quality eggs and meat to meet the ever increasing market demand. Selection and BreedingSmall scale farmers increase their flock by keeping breeds that go broody. However commercial poultry farmers buy day old chicks from recognized hatcheries such as Kenchic and Muguku. Hybrids are not recommended for breeding as their hybrid vigour would decline in their offspring and many do not go broody. Broodiness is the desire to sit on the eggs. The birds selected should have the following characteristics. YoungHealthyAble to go broodyProlificGood mothering ability. Commercial farmers should also consider the following. Whether the enterprise is for meat or egg productionAge, that is either day-old or at point of laying. Breed of birds in respect to egg colour and size of birds. Production, which is percentage laying or growth rate. NB . After the selection of the breeding stock, cocks are allowed to run with hens daily to ensure that all the eggs are fertilisedComposition of an EggThe parts of an egg include the following. The shellThe shell membraneAir spaceEgg white albumen ChalazaeYolk.


NB . After the selection of the breeding stock, cocks are allowed to run with hens daily to ensure that all the eggs are fertilisedComposition of an EggThe parts of an egg include the following. The shellThe shell membraneAir spaceEgg white albumen ChalazaeYolk. The shellIt forms about 10-12 of the total egg content and is largely made up of calcium and phosphorous compounds which make it hard. It gives the egg its shape and provides protection to the inner contents of the egg. The egg shell is porous and allows gaseous exchange to take place. This makes it possible for the embryo to develop. Shell membraneThis forms the inner lining of the shell and makes about 1 of the egg content. It is formed of two separate membranes which closely adhere to each other. The two membranes separate at the broad end to form an air space air cell. The inner membrane is about 0.015mm thick and the outer one is about 0.05mm thick. The air in the air space is used by the developing embryo during incubation. Albumen Egg whiteThe albumen forms about 55-60 of the total egg content. It is a jelly like colourless fluid when fresh and turns white when cooked. It is divided into four major parts: chalazae and chalaziferous albumen, thin inner albumen, thick albumen and outer thin albumen. The albumen surrounds the yolk and serves as a food reserve to the developing embryo. It is mainly protein. ChalazaeThis forms about 3 of the albumen and it s a dense white mass floating all over the place within an egg. It has two twisted cords which hold the yolk in place at the centre of the egg. The two chalazae hold the yolk from both ends of the egg thus allowing the yolk to move the germinal disc always to the top position. This is important during incubation for the purpose of heat transfer to the developing embryo. If the chalazae are broken the yolk is displaced from its normal position. The YolkIt is divided into three major parts and forms about 33 of the total egg content. It is yellow in colour and spherical. Its main function is to supply for all the embryo requirements since it contains food reserves for the developing chick.


The YolkIt is divided into three major parts and forms about 33 of the total egg content. It is yellow in colour and spherical. Its main function is to supply for all the embryo requirements since it contains food reserves for the developing chick. The yolk is rich in vitamins, fats, minerals and proteins. The three parts are:Germinal discPigmentsVitelline membrane. The germinal disc: this is formed from the ovary after fertilization and is always found at the top of the yolk as a small spot regardless of what position an egg is resting. The disc is joined to the centre of the yolk by a funnel shaped structure called the streak latebra. This allows maximum heat transfer to the developing embryo within the yolk. The egg pigments: The pigment contained in the yolk always comes from the food the bird eats and also from its body. This pigment is known as Xanthophylls and is responsible for the colour of the shell and that of the yolk yellow The vitelline membrane: the vitelline membrane surrounds the yolk and therefore gives the yolk its shape. If the egg is not properly stored, this membrane may break up causing the yolk to come out of it. Incubation of eggsThis refers to the embryonic development of a fertilized into a chick under correct conditions which will ensure that a chick is hatched from the egg. In chicken these conditions must be provided for 21 days while in turkeys and ducks this takes 28 days. Selection and Care of Eggs for IncubationEggs for incubation should have the following characteristics. Should be fertilizedMedium sized-55-60gm in weight. Lighter or heavier weight lowers hatchability. Have smooth shellOval in shapeFree of any cracks in the shellClean to ensure that the pores are openNot have abnormalities such as blood spots, meat spots or double yolkShould be fresh collected within one week and not more than 10 days. NB . The internal condition of the egg is examined through egg candling. Egg CandlingThis is the method used to check the freshness of an egg for physical abnormalities or likelihood of being hatched. It is done by passing a strong light through the egg in a dark room. The source of light may either be a torch, candle or electric bulb.


Egg CandlingThis is the method used to check the freshness of an egg for physical abnormalities or likelihood of being hatched. It is done by passing a strong light through the egg in a dark room. The source of light may either be a torch, candle or electric bulb. Procedure of candlingThe egg is pace over a hole made on a card board box. A light under the box is then put on. The observer then looks at the egg against the light below. The following can be observed through egg candling. The size of the air spaceIf the egg is fertilised the germinal disc will be seen as a black spot . Whether the yolk has blood spots. Whether the shell has cracksWhether the egg shell is brokenWhether the shell is very porous. Incubated eggs are candled two or more times. First candling is done between the 5th and 7th to check for fertility. If they are fertile, blood veins are seen. If they are not they appear clear. The second candling is done on the 18th day to confirm the presence of the chick. An egg with a living embryo clearly shows a large section containing the embryo and a smaller section which is clear containing the air space. Methods of IncubationNatural incubationThis method involves the use of a broody hen to sit on the eggs. The hen provides the necessary conditions for incubation e.g. warmth, turning the eggs etc. The hen must sit on the eggs for 21 days for successful embryonic development. A hen normally shows some signs when it is about to go broody. Signs of Broodiness in PoultryProlonged moultingTendency to sit on the eggs after layingNumber of eggs laid are fewPlucking of feathers from the abdomen breast regionProduces a characteristic sound and becomes aggressive. Preparation and Management of Natural IncubationEnsure the hen is completely broody. I.e. shows the ability to sit on the eggs for long hours. The broodiness can also be induced by use of China clays. Prepare the nest in a secluded place of the poultry house. The nest can be a wooden box, karai, a woven basket or a carton box. The nesting box should be spacious to allowmovement of the hen.


Prepare the nest in a secluded place of the poultry house. The nest can be a wooden box, karai, a woven basket or a carton box. The nesting box should be spacious to allowmovement of the hen. The nest should be lined with some nesting materials such as dry grass, sawdust or wood shavings to maintain warmth in the nest. Give an adequate number of eggs to the broody hen i.e.10-15eggs. A hen may not cover more than 15 eggs hence low hatchability. Set the eggs in the evening or night but not in the morning so that the chicks will start emerging on the evening or night of the 21st day. When the chicks start emerging in the morning, the hen will walk out with a few chicks and leave the un-hatched ones to die. Regularly dust the hen with appropriate pesticides so as to control external parasites such as fleas, mites etc. Allow the bird to occasionally move out to scratch and exercise. Feed the brooding hen daily and provide adequate clean water. NB . The hen should not be disturbed at all. Advantages of Natural IncubationLess skill is requiredIt is not labour intensive as there is no turning of the eggs and checking of temperatures. It s a cheap way of multiplying birds i.e. small scale farmers who cannot afford incubators can multiply their flocks using this method. Hatchability is very high compared to artificial incubation therefore reducing the risk margin. DisadvantagesOnly few chicks can be hatched at a time by one henEgg production is reduced when the birds go broody. It s only possible with breeds that go broody. The farmer cannot plan when to incubate. Diseases and parasites can easily be transmitted to the chicks from the hen if it is infected. 2. Artificial IncubationUnder this method all the conditions necessary for the hatching of the eggs are provided artificially by equipment called an incubator. Conditions Necessary for Artificial IncubationTemperature: Temperature should be maintained at 37.5oC 39.4oC. Lower or higher temperature would kill the developing embryo. Fresh Air Ventilation: There should be adequate fresh air circulating in the incubator. The fresh air is required by the developing embryos. Ventilation facilitates gaseous exchange and helps to control humidity. Relative Humidity: It should be about 60 . If it is too low, the embryos may lose moisture and die.


Ventilation facilitates gaseous exchange and helps to control humidity. Relative Humidity: It should be about 60 . If it is too low, the embryos may lose moisture and die. Water is placed in a tray within the incubator to maintain the humidity. The damp cloth also assists in maintaining the relative humidity. High humidity lowers hatchability and leads to production of large chicks which look abnormal. It also results into dampness which predisposes the eggs to infections. Egg Turning: This is quite important in the management of an artificial incubator. This helps to avoid the germinal disc sticking onto the egg shell leading to the death of the embryo. Wrong turning of the egg may lead to breaking of the blood vessels. Turning should always be done along the axis of the eggs and each time in a different direction. Some incubators have automatic turning devices. Management of the IncubatorThe following should be observed for artificial incubation. The incubator should be cleaned and disinfected or fumigated before putting in the eggs. Eggs should be turned every 6-8 hours each day. However in the first 24 hours and the last three days they should not be turned. These are the critical stages of embryonic development. They should be turned around 180oC. Any egg found to be infertile on the 5th day should be removed. Remove any broken eggs. Maintain temperature within the set rangeAdd water as necessary to maintain the correct humidity. Advantages of Artificial IncubationIt s possible to plan when to have the chicks. Many chicks are hatched at onceIf management is good, there is no danger of infecting the chicks with diseases and parasites. The incubator is usually ready when required. Egg production is not affected by incubation as the hens do not go broody. DisadvantagesIncubator is expensive to buy hence has high capital investment. More labour intensive. More skills requiredHave high risks of damaging all the eggs if the requirements such as temperature or relative humidity are not strictly observed and controlled. Only viable in large scale hatcheries. Sources of ChicksFor success in the poultry enterprise, the following factors should be put into consideration. Reputation of the supplierThe type of chicks required in relation to size, breed, sex etcTime factor i.e. how long the chicks will take in transit from the hatchery to the farm. Very long hours of transportation cause stress to the chicks.


Reputation of the supplierThe type of chicks required in relation to size, breed, sex etcTime factor i.e. how long the chicks will take in transit from the hatchery to the farm. Very long hours of transportation cause stress to the chicks. Arrangement should be made to feed the chicks on transit if the source is very far. The most reputable sources of chicks in Kenya are;Muguku Poultry Farm- Kikuyu. Lake Chicks Hatcheries KisumuKenchic Hatcheries Athi riverStockplan Hatcheries MombasaSigma Supplies NairobiKen Bird NairobiBrooding and Rearing of ChicksBrooding is the rearing of chicks from one day old to the time they are taken to the main house. Brooding is a very critical and difficult period in the management of birds. There are two methods used in brooding the chicks. Natural BroodingArtificial Brooding. Natural BroodingThis follows natural incubation. The hen is allowed to provide warmth and other requirements to the chicks. Feed and water should be provided for both the hen and the chicks. The hen stays with the chicks until they are old enough to feed themselves. AdvantagesIt is cheapIt is suitable for most small poultry farmers. It is less labour intensiveDisadvantagesOnly possible where the hens go broodyIt is not suitable for large scale production of birds. Lowers the egg production during the brooding period. Artificial BroodingThis refers to keeping of the chicks in a structure called a Brooder where food and other requirements are provided. Chicks remain in the brooder for 6-8 weeks. Requirements in an Artificial BrooderLitter: this should be in the form of wood shavings. This should be on the floor. It maintains warmth and absorbs moisture. Fresh air: holes for ventilation should be made on the walls of the brooder for gaseous exchange. The holes however should not allow draught into the brooder. Heat source: there should a wire guard round the heat source to prevent the chicks from being burnt. Correct temperature should be maintained at 32-35oC in the first week, 29-33oC in the second week and 26-300C in the third week. The heat sources include electric bulbs, charcoal burners, lantern, kerosene and gas burners. The heat source should be withdrawn gradually to avoid stress.