These are a few examples of ways to cook food, and notice that all of these methods involve heating the food to a high temperature: Baking Boiling Steaming Grilling FryingHeat transfer when cooking During cooking, heat is transferred from the source of heat to the food through conduction e.g. grilling steak on a grilling pan sitting on a stove , convection e.g. running cold water over frozen food to speed up thawing process and or radiation roasting marshmallow over fire . Check out the resources below to learn more why food is cooked and how heat is transferred conduction, convection and radiation . We know that cooking gets the food hot. It makes what is otherwise unsafe to be consumed raw, safe to eat. In order to do so, food has to be put in an oven or on the stovetop and be subjected to a source of heat. When the heat transfers from something that is hot, such as a flame or a pot of boiling water, to the food, this process is called heat transfer. There are three types of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation. What distinguishes them is the manner in which the heat in transferred. Without a medium, heat cannot be transferred. The different ways that heat transfer can be accomplished determines how the food is cooked and what the end result will be. Convection Heat is transferred via liquids and gases. Fast moving molecules of the convection medium collide with the slower molecules in the food and heat them up. As warmer areas of a liquid or gas rise to cooler areas, it forms a continuous circulation pattern. These convection currents can be observed when water is boiling in a pot. Convection that takes place through air occurs in a convection oven. Compared to traditional ovens, ovens using convection are usually the better choice as it has fas to circulate the air around. On the contrary, traditional ovens mostly rely on radiation off the oven walls and is therefore a more eficient method of heat transfer. It heats food faster and reduces cooking times by at least 25 . Below are some examples of convection heating. Baking and roasting Boiling and steaming Running cold water over frozen food, which transfers heat into the food to thaw it more quickly Radiation Heat is transferrred via electromagnetical waves.


Fibre-rich vegetables. ... Beans. How Heat Affects Foods and Their Flavors Posted on June 8, 2021 by MadgeTech MarketingStarches Starch is the most common carbohydrate in human diets, whether it s natural or is added to foods. As heat is applied to starch it absorbs moisture from its surroundings and becomes softer. This process is called gelatinization and is the reason pasta and rice double in size and soften when cooked. Gelatinization begins at 150 F. EFFECT OF OVERHEATING IN FOODNandhini Ramanathan Nandhini Ramanathan I am a foodtechnology student Leadership self-motivated team work Published Aug 30, 2023 Follow HOW HEAT AFFECTS FOOD During the heating process or the cooking of food, a complex series of physical and chemical changes take place. These changes vary according to the heating method and time exposed, but may ultimately include changes in nutrient composition, fat content, moisture, flavor, smell, texture, and color. The longer the food is heated, and the higher the temperature, the greater the nutrient loss. When we look at commercially prepared dog food or even home cooking as preparation, the heat applied during the extrusion process, grilling or microwaving contribute to the reduction in nutritional value most of the time. Graph Protein goes through certain physical and chemical changes when it is heated and cooked pg 88, SACN When the proteins in food are heated, they coagulate. An example of this can be observed in the proteins found in eggs which become denatured and coagulate during the heating process. The heat disrupts the hydrogen bonds and non-polar hydrophobic interactions. The bonds are disrupted by increasing the kinetic energy and causing the molecules to vibrate so rapidly and violently. Researchers have observed that single amino acid digestibilities, especially for aspartic acid and cysteine, which are known to be heat-sensitive, revealed a disproportionate reduction when tested in the commercially processed food compared to when tested alone. Protein that is exposed to hot temperatures, shrinks and loses moisture. This usually occurs at temperatures between 160 and 185 degrees Fahrenheit. When animal sources of protein are cooked slowly, any connective tissues present in the meat are likely to dissolve.


Protein that is exposed to hot temperatures, shrinks and loses moisture. This usually occurs at temperatures between 160 and 185 degrees Fahrenheit. When animal sources of protein are cooked slowly, any connective tissues present in the meat are likely to dissolve. Heat does not destroy the protein in food, but it may reduce the overall content Dextrinisation: The reaction of dry heat on the surface of food which changes starch to dextrin, e.g. toast. Gelatinisation: The process of thickening which takes place when a mixture of starch and liquid is heated. Ways to retain nutrients while cooking Prolonged exposure to water, heat, and light may cause some foods to lose nutritional value like vitamin B1, vitamin C and polyphenols. Here are simple tips which will help you retain nutrients while enjoying your favourite foods. Have a look! 02 11Rule for washingAlways wash the vegetables first and then chop them. Chopping first and then washing takes away the nutrition of your food. 03 11Don t chop small Do not chop vegetables into very small pieces as most of the nutients will be destroyed when they come in contact with air. The best way is to chop the vegetable into larger chunks. 04 11Water usageCook vegetables in smaller amounts of water. Boiling in too much water damages the nutrients. It is best advised to cook the veggies covered on low flame in their own water. 05 11Heating your foodAvoid re-heating of food as it destroys the chemical structure of nutrients and vitamins. 06 11Loss of mineralsAs soon as you chop veggies, you should cook them as the vitamins and minerals are secure in their cells as once they are exposed to light and air, the nutrient contents can be destroyed. 07 11Excess waterDo not throw away the excess water drained after boiling rice or vegetables. The excess water is loaded with nutrients and it can used in preparing gravies, kneading dough or serve it as a refreshment drink. 08 11Root rulesRoot vegetables like potato, ginger, turnip and carrots should be boiled with skins and the peel should be removed after boiling. Boiling with peels helps the nutrients to migrate to the centre of the vegetables which helps in better retention of its nutrients. 09 11Baking sodaDon't use baking soda when cooking vegetables. Although it helps in retaining color of the vegetables as well as speeds up the cooking process, but destroys the vitamin C content of the veggies.


Boiling with peels helps the nutrients to migrate to the centre of the vegetables which helps in better retention of its nutrients. 09 11Baking sodaDon't use baking soda when cooking vegetables. Although it helps in retaining color of the vegetables as well as speeds up the cooking process, but destroys the vitamin C content of the veggies. 10 11Fresh food Eating fresh food is an good idea because the depletion of nutrients could be slowed down. Another reason is the quicker you consume it, the more nutrients can be gained from it. Try eating within 4 hours of cooking your food Check for aflatoGuidelines to minimize nutrient losses during preparation 1. Choose fresh foods that are not over-ripe, bruised, cut or scraped. 2. Peel thinly or cook inn their skins,jacket 3. Aim at golden brown whenncooking indry heat. 4. Use enough water to cover 5. Cooknthem for the appropriate time 6. Blend starchy flavours with cold water before cooking 7. Stirbthoroughly and continuously over low heat 8. Wash vegetables before cutting. Soaking or washing time should be reduced to minimize nutrient loss. 9. Cut vegetables into big pieces so that exposure of vitamins to water is less while cooking and washing. 10. Use a vegetable peeler to remove skin as it helps remove only a very thin layer of skin. 11. Use minimum water for cooking. Bring the water to boil and add the vegetables to cook. 12. Cook vegetables by steaming and pressure cooking to conserve nutrients. 13. Cover the vessel with a lid while cooking as it hastens cooking. 14. Vegetables salads should be prepared just before serving to conserve nutrients. 15. Use acids such as lime juice or vinegar to salads as it prevents loss of Vitamin C since Vitamin C is stable in acid. 16. Store foods in a cool, dark place. 17. When boiling, add the raw food to the boiling water rather than to cold water. 18. Steaming is a way of cooking with a minimum amount of water. 19. If possible use the cooking water for gravies, sauces or soups as it is a source of watersoluble vitamins and elements minerals . 20. Cook for the minimum time necessary to make the food palatable and safe. 21. Do not use baking soda to help keep the green colour of vegetables, as this increases loss of vitamin C. 22. Do not use copper utensils.


Do not use baking soda to help keep the green colour of vegetables, as this increases loss of vitamin C. 22. Do not use copper utensils. Copper helps to destroy vitamin C. 23. Soak whole pulses overnight and other dhals for one hour before cooking. Safety in preparing and cooking starchy carbohydrates Choose foods processed for safety. ... Cook food thoroughly. ... Don t cook root tubers when they have any green, damaged ir sprouting bits Check aflatoxins in cereals or grains before cooking Eat cooked foods immediately. ... Store cooked foods carefully. ... Reheat cooked foods thoroughly. ... Avoid contact between raw foods and cooked foods. ... Wash hands repeatedly. ... Keep all kitchen surfaces meticulously clean. Explain four factors to consider when setting a table. The number of people taking the meal as this determine the number of covers to be laid. The meal to be served as this ensures that all the tableware is available. Number of courses dishes as this enables one to set the cover for the courses. Tableware as this determines their placement. Type of meal service as each type has its own way of laying the table. The type of dinners determines the way of table setting e.g. ages, special needs. A center piece should be available for beauty enhance appetite. Provide adequate space to avoid overcrowding for comfort. Ensure the room is clean for hygiene. The table cloth should be well laundered for neatness. Table appointments should be clean for hygiene enhance appetite Essentials for table settingplace setting for one person is a "cover.". 2. The plate, flatware and placemat should be 1-1 2" from the table edge to allow for an attractive table and safety. 3. Flatware is placed in order of use from the outside in. 4. The napkin should be folded in a square or rectangle and placed so that the open edge is toward the plate. 5. Allow 20-24 inches for each place setting or cover. 6. Use only flatware and plates that are necessary for the specific meal. 7. Table cloth - the center fold should fall exactly on the center line of the table. The cloth then drops evenly on both sides. The cloth should hang over the table no more than 10-12 inches.


Table cloth - the center fold should fall exactly on the center line of the table. The cloth then drops evenly on both sides. The cloth should hang over the table no more than 10-12 inches. 8. Tables should be set according to these principles; art, common sense, concern for comfort for those eating and courtesy. 9. A good centerpiece is: - in scale with the table - is low so people opposite each other can see across the table - can be placed anywhere on table as long as table looks well-balanced - can be part of the meal salad, fruit bowl, dessert, etc. Skip to document University High School Books Sign in My Library Information AI Chat Mealsfor special groups and occasion Used in meal planning Course Nutrition and dietetics DND 2204 36 documents University Thika School of Medical and Health Sciences More info Uploaded by: Anonymous Student Thika School of Medical and Health Sciences Comments Please sign in or register to post comments. Students also viewed Types of management styles Diseases of the Small Intestines Meal preparation units and equipments Background OF Medical Terminologies Inborn Errors OF Metabolism GIT disorders Upper - GIT Notes Related documents Lifespan notes on adolescents,adults,elderly Parenteral nutrition Criteria for Formula Selection Commonly used equipment in enteral feeding and parenteral Community Partnership Skills 1 Notes Principles OF Human Nutrition notes Preview text MEAL PLANNING FOR VARIOUS GROUPS AND SPECIAL OCCASIONS Unit objectives By the end of this unit, the learner should be able to: 1. Identify the various groups of individual with different nutritional needs 2. Describe on how to prepare and serve meals to meet their recommended allowance individually 3. Explain the need for the nutritional requirement in the lifespan and occupation 8 Introduction A nutritious and wholesome balanced diet is a key to good health. A well-balanced diet includes eating the right amount of foods from the five main food groups. Most people will have three main meals a day. No single food contains all nutrients the body needs so it is important to eat a wide variety. The right amount of different nutrients can increase life expectancy by keeping the heart and body healthy, and preventing many long-term illnesses.


Most people will have three main meals a day. No single food contains all nutrients the body needs so it is important to eat a wide variety. The right amount of different nutrients can increase life expectancy by keeping the heart and body healthy, and preventing many long-term illnesses. Body weight can be kept to an acceptable level through healthy eating, leading to a fitter and more active lifestyle. Nutrition is one of the factors that contributes to the wellness of an individual. A balanced diet, when plannedcarefully, provides adequate energy and nutrients for growth, health maintenance, disease prevention and therefore it is essential for our whole lifespan. There is a number of factors to be considered when planning meals. Factors to be considered in meal planning for different categories Figure 1: Factors to be considered in meal planning for different categories Different examples of occasions are Fiesta, birthday, weddings, anniversaries, Christmas, Mother s day, Father s day, Baptismale.t. It important to plan meals for different occasions success of occasion depends on how well it is planned- from the decors, house arrangement and the food that must be specially chosen, prepared and served Foods, techniques and equipment C. Kitchen equipment must be safe and reliable if it is to be used to prepare and serve food for special occasions. Remember that: facilities must be appropriate for the number of guests being served if the celebration is to be held at a venue away from home, the host or caterer must consider what equipment and facilities are available cutlery, plates and storage space in refrigerators, freezers, cupboards and benches must be organised before the event to avoid any last-minute shortages kitchen equipment such as hand mixers, microwave ovens, blenders and stoves must be tested and checked before the event to detect any faulty equipment only equipment that saves time should be used the preparation and cleaning of some equipment outweighs its value oven, refrigerator and freezer temperatures must be tested to see that they are suitable for keeping food safe and so preventing any risk of food poisoning equipment should be cleaned before and after use to ensure proper hygiene stored equipment can often attract insects, rodents and cockroaches there must be enough serving equipment such as spoons, forks and tongs-when people swap serving utensils, cross-contamination can easily occur. Small- and large-scale meal preparation The size of an event can have a great impact on the preparation involved.


Kitchen equipment must be safe and reliable if it is to be used to prepare and serve food for special occasions. Remember that: facilities must be appropriate for the number of guests being served if the celebration is to be held at a venue away from home, the host or caterer must consider what equipment and facilities are available cutlery, plates and storage space in refrigerators, freezers, cupboards and benches must be organised before the event to avoid any last-minute shortages kitchen equipment such as hand mixers, microwave ovens, blenders and stoves must be tested and checked before the event to detect any faulty equipment only equipment that saves time should be used the preparation and cleaning of some equipment outweighs its value oven, refrigerator and freezer temperatures must be tested to see that they are suitable for keeping food safe and so preventing any risk of food poisoning equipment should be cleaned before and after use to ensure proper hygiene stored equipment can often attract insects, rodents and cockroaches there must be enough serving equipment such as spoons, forks and tongs-when people swap serving utensils, cross-contamination can easily occur. Small- and large-scale meal preparation The size of an event can have a great impact on the preparation involved. Planning an event for five or ten people is very different from organising an event for hundreds of guests. Planning ahead allows the host to organise an appropriate menu according to the information they have on the number of guests attending. This planning is necessary to: - avoid excessive waste of food and money - avoid the embarrassment of running short of food - ensure that the food is the best choice for the event. When catering for small numbers of guests, it is relatively easy to estimate rough quantities of food. When catering for large numbers of guests, a rough guess or estimate is not suitable. Every caterer follows a set of guidelines. A host must consider the factors listed when planning a menu. Consideration to consider in planning meals for special occasions 1. Factors to consider in meal planning a. Food Budget - refers to the amount of money needed for the food to be prepared. It should be prepared ahead of time b. Tools, Facilities and Equipment- menu you have planned can only be prepared if you have the needed tools, facilities and equipment c.


Food Budget - refers to the amount of money needed for the food to be prepared. It should be prepared ahead of time b. Tools, Facilities and Equipment- menu you have planned can only be prepared if you have the needed tools, facilities and equipment c. Time and Energy Available plan meals which will make reasonable demand on time and energy to save time and energy it is advisable to plan dishes you are familiar with and that you have skills and ability in preparing them. Plan cooking dishes which do not use the same equipment since it takes time for one dish to be cooked plan dishes that will not require last minute attention 2. Food Preferences of Guests - consider what dishes would the guests love to eat and what popular and special in a given culture or regions. Consider special nutritional needs 3. Goals in Preparing Meals for special occasions it is important to set goals that will not only satisfy the palate but also promote health and wellbeing of every guest. The meal should be nutritionally adequate, economically feasible, aesthetically satisfying, palatable and hygienically prepared 4. Nutritionally adequate means the meal has enough nutrients to make the body healthy. It contains all nutrients needed by the body like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Use the Three Basic Food Groups as guide 5. Economically feasible Food budget is enough to meet the food expenditures food budget should be reasonable and affordable 6. Aesthetically satisfying every dish is pleasing, deliciously inviting and satisfying it should appeal to the senses and to the appetite. There should be a variety of colorThe calorific requirement is generally higher in men than in women because men have larger body size, and they are more physically active and have more lean muscle mass. 8.1 Age groups i. Infants breast feeding is the safest and most desirable method of nourishment Human milk is considered the ideal starting food, with most of the nutritional requirements. However breast feeding should not be relied on exclusively for optional nutrition beyond the sixth mouth of the infant s life. For twins, optimum is 3-4 months. O Interval of feeding: Breast feeding should be started as soon as possible after birth if a mother and a baby are okay. A baby should be allowed to feed on demand and may suckle 1215 times day.


For twins, optimum is 3-4 months. O Interval of feeding: Breast feeding should be started as soon as possible after birth if a mother and a baby are okay. A baby should be allowed to feed on demand and may suckle 1215 times day. However a common routine is that of 10-15 times during the day. After such feed a baby should be burped to remove the air swallowed together with milk by allowing the baby on the mothers knee or shoulders. For the first days the baby should be suckle both breast for only a few minutes each time to prevent any nipple sores or cracks. About 150ml of human milk per kg body weight the baby is getting enough milk if satisfied at a 12-20 times feeding, falls asleep promptly and sleep quietly for several hours, and also makes satisfactory weight gains from week to week. Duration of breastfeeding: sufficient until about 6 months of age, should continue for 2 years or even longer. Refer: duration of breast milk Replacement of breast milk Is the process of feeding an infant child who is not receiving any breast milk with a diet that provides all the nutrients a child needs Introduction of solid foods before the age of 4-6 months is not recommended due to immaturity of gastrointestinal tract and kidneys to handle solid food. After that, solid foods could be introduced gradually and individually. The typical order of introduction begins with cereal, usually iron-fortified ones, vegetables, fruits, eggs and then meat. A waiting period of 4-5 days before the introduction of another new food is recommended to make sure no allergic reaction or intolerance. It s only recommended when the AFASS criteria can be met. AFASS A -ACCEPTANCE: no barriers replacement feeding Barriers can be cultural, social and also due to fear of stigma and discrimination F- FEASIBLE: mother or the family has adequate time, knowledge ,skills and other resources to prepare the replacement food and feed the infant up to 12 times in 24 hours A- AFFORDABLE: Mother, family, community or even the health system support can pay for the cost of purchasing, preparing and using replacement feeding without compromising the health and nutrition of the entire family.


This can lead to serious health problems, nutrient deficiencies and eating disorders in later life iv. Adults Growth is usually completed by the age of 25 years. The aims of nutrition during adult years are to obtain adequate energy and nutrients to maintain a healthy body weight and prevention of chronic diseases through appropriate food choices. Adulthood is a period when an individual begins to experience and cope with numerous changes in the realms of work, family and education. Healthy eating and lifestyle are important for them to cope with stress and maintain health. The calorific requirement begins to decrease after the age of 25 years as basal metabolic rates decrease. People during adult years may not get as much exercise as they did in earlier years. Thus, when appetite and food intake do not decrease, there is a common tendency toward weight gain during this period. An intake of 3,500 calories more than the body needs for maintenance and activities will result in a weight gain of 500 grams fat. A person who overeats by only 120 calories a day equal to a can of soft drink can gain 6kilograms in 1 year. Therefore, it is important to reach energy balance to maintain a healthy weight i. energy intake equals energy output . This can be achieved by eating less energydense foods, and increasing physical activities as exercise will increase the number of calories burned. Healthy eating and lifestyle are encouraged during adult years to maintain health and prevention of chronic diseases v. Elderly Physiological, psychosocial and economic changes of the elderly affect their nutrition status. The body s function changes with age. Metabolic rate slows down, bones become less dense and lean muscle mass is reduced. Eye-sight,hearing, taste and smell are less acute and poor dentition is common. The secretion of digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid is diminished which in turn impairs digestion and absorption of nutrients such as vitamin B12. The reduced muscle tone of the intestine may result in constipation in an elderly. The loss of spouse or close friends, physical disabilities, poor health, feeling of loneliness and uselessness may diminish an elderly s ability to shop, cook and also his her appetite to eat. Retirement of the elderly results in decreased income and this may affect one s choice of food. Some may choose foods by cost rather than nutrient content.


Adequate folate intake is important for adult women before pregnancy to prevent neural tube defects in infant. The iron requirement is highfor women throughout the childbearing years to replace blood loss during menstruation. Fruits and vegetables are important source of vitamins A, C, folate , minerals potassium , phytochemicals, and fiber. A diet high in fruits and vegetables are associated with lower risk of chronic diseases. For manual workers, meals should be a balanced diet rich in carbohydrates such as rice, noodles and pasta or bread to provide enough energy to work. Manual work increases sweating which in turn increases the loss of water and electrolytes. It is essential to increase fluid intake water, juice, soup to regulate body temperature and avoid dehydration. People with a sedentary lifestyle e. office workers, require to pay attention to energy balance to maintain a healthy body weight. Reduced physical activity together with an excessive energy intake from a large portion of energy-dense foods such as fast food, snacks increase the risk of obesity and other chronic disease in later life. The modern busy lifestyle has made fast food become popular because it is convenient and time-saving. High consumption of food in restaurants and fast food shops result in higher intake of fat, trans-fat, salt and sugar while the intake in fruits and vegetables is low. Meals for office workers should be rich in nutrients but low in energy. It is recommended to include more vegetables and fruits as they are rich in dietary fiber and low in calories, instead of energy dense snacks such as ice-cream, chocolates and chips. They are also rich in vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals that are beneficial to health and may help to prevent chronic diseases. Higher fiber diet is also more filling and helps to prevent constipation. Energy-dense foods and alcohol should be eaten in moderation only. E Elderly A balanced nutrient-dense diet is essential for maintaining good health of the elderly. Good nutritional status can help to prevent chronic disease and speed up recovery from illness, surgery or broken bones. An elderly s diet should include varied choices of food with most of the calories from carbohydrates, moderate in protein while low in fat, salt and sugar. Adequate protein is essential for tissue repairing, synthesis of immune cells and hormones. Lean meat or poultry without skin and low fat dairy products are good protein choices.


An elderly s diet should include varied choices of food with most of the calories from carbohydrates, moderate in protein while low in fat, salt and sugar. Adequate protein is essential for tissue repairing, synthesis of immune cells and hormones. Lean meat or poultry without skin and low fat dairy products are good protein choices. Elderly are also encouraged to have adequate fruits, vegetables, whole grains products and legumes. These foods are rich source of vitamins, minerals and fiber. Adequate fiber and fluid can help to prevent constipation. Foods for breakfast should include enough carbohydrates noodles, whole meal bread, breakfast cereals, and congee and moderate protein foods lean meat, milk and dairy products, eggs . Lunch and dinner choices can follow the principles of healthy eating with cereals or cereal products as major food, moderate amount of fish, seafood, legumes, egg and lean meat. It is advised to prepare foods with low fat cooking methods such as steaming, boiling, stewing, grilling and stir-frying with little oil. Chinese family dinner usually consists of 2-3 dishes that are shared by family members, whereas western style dinner usually includes soup, appetizer, main dish, dessert and or a drink that are served on an individual basis. Healthy snacks such as low fat dairy products, sandwich, fruits, whole meal biscuits, chestnuts, sweet corn can supplement main meals for those with additional nutrition needs and small appetite. 8 Meal planning for special occasions celebrations; such as social gatherings, parties and festivals should take into consideration of the occasion, venue, age and number of guests, style of meal sit down or buffet type, Chinese or Western meal and special food if necessary. Prepare appropriate tableware, napkins, tablecloth and home decorations flowers or other ornaments , seats and tables for celebrations or parties. Background of guests, their age, gender, total number, food preference, nutritional needs and special ethnic or religion are factors for consideration when planning meals. A good meal should be nutritious, well cooked with careful combination of foods and flavors. For example, food for a birthday party for school-age children should be colorful, attractive, and easy to manage, in bite size, small packs and include more body building foods for growth. Dishes can be prepared using different methods e.


A good meal should be nutritious, well cooked with careful combination of foods and flavors. For example, food for a birthday party for school-age children should be colorful, attractive, and easy to manage, in bite size, small packs and include more body building foods for growth. Dishes can be prepared using different methods e. grilling, baking, boiling to give various texture e. soft, firm, crispy and served either hot or cold. Special food can be prepared for special occasions or festivals e. birthday cake for birthday party; Easter chocolate eggs for Easter festival, Chinese turnip cake for Chinese New Year etc. It is also advised to shop and plan for food in advance to allow changes of food in the menu if they are not available. Meals for outing; should be well planned and prepared. Depending on the duration of the outing, the meal should provide enough nutrients and energy to sustain daily activities as that from amain meal. It should be well-balanced by choosing foods from the three basic food groups and to include a suitable drink. Choose foods that are easy to eat, pack and carry, and can be kept for a longer time such as bread, fruits, packed drinks or canned foods. Use thermal containers with insulation or spaces for ice packs to keep food drinks at a safe temperature to avoid bacterial growth. Food can be packed in a plastic box for easy transport to avoid crushing damage. Download AI Quiz 00 SaveShare Document continues below Discover more from: Nutrition and dieteticsDND 2204 Thika School of Medical and Health Sciences 36 documents Go to course 6 Steps OF DIET Planning questions Nutrition and dietetics100 2 55 Tsmhs Nutrition Intervention IN Hivaids Module Nutrition and dieteticsNone 1 What Is Behavioral Psychology With Duties and Specialties Indeed Nutrition and dieteticsNone 1 Difference Between Cognitive and Behavioral Psychology Compare the Difference Between Similar Terms Nutrition and dieteticsNone 17 Milk oils and other food production notes Nutrition and dieteticsNone 2 Commonly used equipment in enteral feeding and parenteral Nutrition and dieteticsNone fruits vegetables, meats, dairy products, fats sweets . Main energy source should come dairy products, dried or fresh fruits, wholemeal biscuits, unsweetened soy bean milk.


Food can be packed in a plastic box for easy transport to avoid crushing damage. Download AI Quiz 00 SaveShare Document continues below Discover more from: Nutrition and dieteticsDND 2204 Thika School of Medical and Health Sciences 36 documents Go to course 6 Steps OF DIET Planning questions Nutrition and dietetics100 2 55 Tsmhs Nutrition Intervention IN Hivaids Module Nutrition and dieteticsNone 1 What Is Behavioral Psychology With Duties and Specialties Indeed Nutrition and dieteticsNone 1 Difference Between Cognitive and Behavioral Psychology Compare the Difference Between Similar Terms Nutrition and dieteticsNone 17 Milk oils and other food production notes Nutrition and dieteticsNone 2 Commonly used equipment in enteral feeding and parenteral Nutrition and dieteticsNone fruits vegetables, meats, dairy products, fats sweets .Main energy source should come dairy products, dried or fresh fruits, wholemeal biscuits, unsweetened soy bean milk. Company About Us Ask AI Studocu World University Ranking 2023 E-Learning Statistics Doing Good Academic Integrity Jobs Blog Dutch Website Contact Help F.A.Q. Contact Newsroom Legal Terms Privacy Policy Cookie Statement View our reviews on Trustpilot English Rest of the World Copyright 2023 StudeerSnel B.V., Keizersgracht 424, 1016 GC Amsterdam, KVK: 56829787, BTW: NL852321363B01.


GRADE 7 LESSON NOTES TERM1,2,3STRAND ONECONSERVING AGRICULTURAL ENVIRONMENTSoil pollution controlDef: Soil pollution - refers to anything that causes contamination of soil and reduces the soil quality. It occurs when the substances causing the pollution reduce the quality of the soil and convert the soil inhabitable for microorganisms and macro organisms living in the soil. Soil contamination or soil pollution can occur either because of human activities or because of natural processes. However, mostly it is due to human activities. The soil contamination can occur due to the presence of chemicals such as pesticides, herbicides, ammonia, petroleum hydrocarbons, lead, nitrate, mercury, naphthalene, etc. In an excess amount. Causes of Soil PollutionSoil pollution is a complex occurrence, and it can be triggered by a variety of things and activities, from the littering of cigarette butts to excess use of chemical fertilizers. Every cause is linked with another. It is quite difficult to pinpoint one particular cause. However, the leading causes are listed below. Industrial Activity - Industrial activity has been the biggest contributor to the problem of soil pollution, especially since the amount of mining and manufacturing has increased. Most industries are dependent on extracting minerals from the earth. As a result, the industrial waste lingers on the soil surface for a long time and makes it unsuitable for use. Agricultural Activities - The utilization of chemicals has gone up tremendously since technology has provided us with modern pesticides and fertilizers. They are full of chemicals that are not produced in nature and cannot be broken down by it. As a result, they seep into the ground after they mix with water and slowly reduce the fertility of the soil. Waste Disposal - While industrial waste is sure to cause contamination, there is another way in which we are adding to the pollution. Every person excretes a certain amount of personal waste in the form of urine and feces. While much of it moves into the sewer system, there is also a large amount that is dumped directly into landfills in the form of diapers. Even the sewer system ends at the landfill, where the biological waste pollutes the soil and water. Accidental Oil Spills - Oil leaks can happen during the storage and transport of chemicals. This can be seen at most of the fuel stations. The chemicals present in the fuel reduces the quality of soil and make it unsuitable for cultivation.


Accidental Oil Spills - Oil leaks can happen during the storage and transport of chemicals. This can be seen at most of the fuel stations. The chemicals present in the fuel reduces the quality of soil and make it unsuitable for cultivation. These chemicals can enter into the groundwater through the soil and make the water undrinkable. Acid Rain - Acid rain is caused when pollutants present in the air mix up with the rain and fall back on the ground. The polluted water could dissolve away some of the essential nutrients found in the soil and change the structure of the soil. Effects of soil pollutionSoil influences almost all aspects of our daily lives. Sometimes we fail to understand it. As a result of this, we sometimes fail to understand the effect that soil pollution has on our daily lives. Polluted soil means stunted crops or even a toxic underground water table. Some major effects of soil pollution are:Effect on Health of Humans - Considering how soil is the reason we are able to sustain ourselves, the contamination of it has major consequences for our health. Crops and plants that are grown on polluted soil absorb much of the pollution and then pass it on to us. This could explain the sudden increase in small and terminal illnesses. The soil pollution can even lead to widespread famines if the plants are unable to grow in it. Effect on Growth of Plants - The ecological balance of any system is affected due to the widespread contamination of the soil. Most plants are unable to adapt when the chemistry of the soil changes so radically in a short period of time. Fungi and bacteria found in the soil that bind it together begin to decline, which creates an additional problem of soil erosion. The fertility of the soil slowly diminishes, making land unsuitable for agriculture and any local vegetation to survive. The soil pollution causes large tracts of land to become hazardous to health. Unlike deserts, which are suitable for their native vegetation, such land cannot support most forms of life. Decreased Soil Fertility - The toxic chemicals present in the soil can decrease soil fertility and therefore decrease the soil yield. The contaminated soil is then used to produce fruits and vegetables, which lack quality nutrients and may contain some poisonous substances to cause serious health problems in people consuming them. Poisoning of the Underground Water Table - Soil pollution also leads to the poisoning of the underground water table. Since this water is stored beneath the layers of the soil, the toxins in the soil could easily percolate slowly and steadily into the water table.


The contaminated soil is then used to produce fruits and vegetables, which lack quality nutrients and may contain some poisonous substances to cause serious health problems in people consuming them. Poisoning of the Underground Water Table - Soil pollution also leads to the poisoning of the underground water table. Since this water is stored beneath the layers of the soil, the toxins in the soil could easily percolate slowly and steadily into the water table. Possible Solutions to Soil PollutionSoil pollution is a complex problem that ought to be solved. It is essential that we all realize how important soil is to us. The earlier we realize this, the better we will be able to solve the problem of soil pollution. It is a complex problem, and thus, it requires everyone, from an individual to the government, to work in complete unison. Listed below are a few things that could help in reducing soil pollution. Reduced Use of Chemical Fertilizers - Chemical fertilizers do more harm than good. While proper amounts could enhance the fertility of the soil, an excess of it actually poisons the soil. The excess of chemical fertilizers could pollute the soil in several ways. It could mess with the pH levels of the soil. It could also destroy the good microorganisms in the soil. Not only that, but the runoff from such soils also causes water pollution as well. Thus, using chemical fertilizers is like a double-edged sword. Reforestation and Afforestation Should Be Promoted - One of the major causes of soil pollution is soil erosion, which is caused due to deforestation. It is natural that, with an ever-growing population, humankind needs more and more space to expand their civilization. Often, it is achieved at the cost of the health of the soil. To prevent this from happening, reforestation of a deforested area should be promoted. Also, afforestation should be promoted and encouraged in the barren lands. The roots of the plants bind the soil particles together and even capture good microorganisms in the soil. It also ensures the maintenance of the underground water table. Recycle and Reuse Products - These steps not only reduce waste generation but also ensure that soil pollution is reduced. At present, plastic forms a significant portion of the generated waste. More often than not, this wastes are buried in landfills. In these landfills, these plastics and other materials decompose slowly and release toxic materials into the soil. These toxic substances are very harmful to the health of the soil and are a major source of soil pollution.


More often than not, this wastes are buried in landfills. In these landfills, these plastics and other materials decompose slowly and release toxic materials into the soil. These toxic substances are very harmful to the health of the soil and are a major source of soil pollution. By reusing and recycling things, we would ensure that lesser wastes are dumped in these landfills, and this, in turn, would reduce soil pollution. Promote Use of Natural Manure - Natural manure is one of the best sources of nutrients for the soil. It is harmless and completely organic. It adds essential nutrients to the soil and restores the health of the soil. It has no harmful by-products that could harm the soil or the environment in any way. Create awareness - In order to ensure that a problem like soil pollution is solved, it is essential that every individual must get involved. It is with their involvement that things can work out better. Awareness programs could be designed so that people understand soil pollution better. If people are aware, they will help, even subconsciously. Safe farming practices that prevent soil pollutionDifferent types of soil conservation methods ensure long-term usage of land and keep it productive for future generations. Let s consider their benefits in regard to soil conservation. Conservation Tillage - The conservation tillage aims at addressing wind and water erosion by covering the earth with vegetation either crops or their residues and limiting the number of tilling operations. Another significant aspect is to choose the proper time for field operations, depending on the soil types. For example, clay ones are better to till after harvesting while other types are better to plow before seeding. Contour Farming - The soil conservation method proves efficient in slope territories and suggests planting species along the contour. Rows up and down the slope provoke soil erosion due to water currents while rows along the contour restrain it. An impact of terracing is similar: it also helps to conserve soil and reduce its degradation processes. Strip Cropping - In this case, farmers combine high-growing crops with low-growing ones for the sake of wind protection, like when corn grows in strips with forage crops. The strip cropping practice works even better when high-growing crops are intensified in the sides where winds blow most frequently. An extra benefit is the organic matter material from the low crops. Windbreaks - As the name suggests, this soil conservation practice is used to reduce the power of winds and its disruptive effect on soil. These are trees or bushes to shelter crops from snow and winds planted in several rows.


An extra benefit is the organic matter material from the low crops. Windbreaks - As the name suggests, this soil conservation practice is used to reduce the power of winds and its disruptive effect on soil. These are trees or bushes to shelter crops from snow and winds planted in several rows. Depending on the number of rows, we can distinguish windbreaks properly up to five rows and shelterbelts six and more . Crop Rotation - Crop rotation vs. mono-cropping farming suggests changing agro species instead of planting one and the same for many subsequent seasons. Farmers applying this soil conservation method reap numerous benefits. Crop rotation helps them improve the earth structure with diverse root systems, to mitigate pest establishments, and to add nitrogen to the land with legumes known as nitrogen-fixing plants. Cover Crops - This soil conservation technique is another way to avoid bare soils and additionally benefit from planting cover crops secondary species in-between growing cash crops for different reasons like to:produce forage and grazing material for cattle;provide green manure;assist in weed control;retain moisture;ensure a natural environment for microorganisms and minor animals;balance nitrogen concentration either releasing or accumulating it with certain plants . Buffer Strips - These are trees and bushes on the banks of water bodies to prevent sediment, water wash offs. Their roots fix the soil to avoid slumping and erosion, canopies protect from excessive sunlight to water inhabitants and falling leaves are a source of organic matter and food of minor aquatic animals. Integrated Pest Management - Pests are a great nuisance to agriculturalists and have been a major issue to tackle while chemicals poison nature leaking to water and the atmosphere. It is important to eliminate synthetic herbicides replacing them with organic ones or establishing biological enemies of pests whenever possible, rotating crop species to minimize increasing pest populations in the same field for years, and using alternative techniques in complex. Benefits of Soil ConservationHumankind in general and farmers in particular benefit from numerous advantages of soil conservation. This agricultural practice contributes to sustainability in a number of ways:Boosts earth quality and productivity. Maintaining the natural environment for earth-dwelling organism s increases fertility and reduces the necessity of chemical fertilizing, thus boosting yields and saving costs at the same time. Mitigates erosion. Soil conservation methods to reduce erosion and depletion help agriculturalists to avoid the expansion of new lands when territories become infertile. Promotes water infiltration and increases its storage. The soil conservation technique of minimum tillage vs.


Soil conservation methods to reduce erosion and depletion help agriculturalists to avoid the expansion of new lands when territories become infertile. Promotes water infiltration and increases its storage. The soil conservation technique of minimum tillage vs. conventional plowing affects soil moistureby reducing cracking and evaporation as well as rising the infiltration rate. Aids air and water purification. The importance of soil conservation relates to water supplies, and the earth functions as a natural filter to purify water. Soil conservation mitigates the concentration of pollutants and sediments. In its turn, water is the basic condition to dissolve nutrients for plants. Soil carbon sequestration and reduced chemical applications contribute to air purity, too. Gives food and shelter for wildlife. Land with growing vegetation is a living environment for animals; it is not only the source for nourishment but their home as well. When the well is dry, we know the worth of water. Benjamin Franklin, Poor Richard s Almanack for 1733Water conservation methods in farmingMulch - We cannot overemphasize the importance of mulching. Mulch is something laid on the surface of the soil to protect the soil from the air, water and the sun. To mulch, first weed the soil then spread a thick layer of organic mulch on the soil. Examples of organic mulches are:Chopped leavesStrawGrass clippingsWood chipsShredded barkPine needlesMulching helps save time and labour as it discourages weeds and pests and conserve water through reduced evaporation. Irrigate early morning or dusk - At the hottest and driest time of the year it is most efficient to water your crops in the morning or in the evening. This avoids water loss from evapotranspiration water evaporating from the land and leaves of plants . Evaporation happens most in the midday sun. Don t over-water - It s a common misconception that plants would be happy with lots of water all of the time. But often farmers are over-watering crops unnecessarily. Save water! Plants will only take what they need and then all that extra water goes to waste through evaporation, run-off or infiltration. Check for leaks and damage - If you ve already invested in an irrigation system, make sure you re not losing any water before it reaches the crops. Irrigation pipes and equipment can become damaged or blocked which causes leaks.


Plants will only take what they need and then all that extra water goes to waste through evaporation, run-off or infiltration. Check for leaks and damage - If you ve already invested in an irrigation system, make sure you re not losing any water before it reaches the crops. Irrigation pipes and equipment can become damaged or blocked which causes leaks. Thoroughly check your equipment for leaks and repair them so that all the water you have gets to the crops. Drip Irrigation - Drip irrigation systems deliver water directly to a plant s roots, reducing the evaporation that happens with spray watering systems. Timers can be used to schedule watering for the cooler parts of the day, further reducing water loss. Importance of water conservation in farmingIt minimizes the effects of drought and water shortages. By reducing the amount of water we use, we can better protect against future drought years. It helps to preserve our environment. Reducing our water usages reduces the energy required to process and deliver it to homes, businesses, farms, and communities, which, in turn, helps to reduce pollution and conserve fuel resources. It helps to preserve our environment. Reducing our water usages reduces the energy required to process and deliver it to homes, businesses, farms, and communities, which, in turn, helps to reduce pollution and conserve fuel resources. Water retention structures to conserve surface runoffWater Retention Structures means a structure designed to retain a large volume of waterThere are various methods of water retention to conserve surface runoff, this include:Water retention Ditches -Ditches are man-made waterbodies that are used mainly to drain the land. Earth Basins - is an area of land where all flowing surface water converges to a single pointWater retention pits is an artificial pond with vegetation around the perimeter and a permanent pool of water in its design. Minimum tillage practices that conserve water in farmingTillage practices refer to the tillage operations carried out between the harvest and following sowing cultivation operation. Tillage, crop rotation and soil cover are practices related to pesticide and nutrient runoff, soil erosion, soil compaction etc.


Earth Basins - is an area of land where all flowing surface water converges to a single pointWater retention pits is an artificial pond with vegetation around the perimeter and a permanent pool of water in its design. Minimum tillage practices that conserve water in farmingTillage practices refer to the tillage operations carried out between the harvest and following sowing cultivation operation. Tillage, crop rotation and soil cover are practices related to pesticide and nutrient runoff, soil erosion, soil compaction etc. Some of the minimum tillage practices include: Use of herbicides;Uprooting slashing;Use of cash crops;Limiting cultivation to the point planting;Proper timing of cultivation;MulchingThere are other different tillage practices distinguished are:Conservation tillageConventional tillageZero tillageConservation tillage can include the following systems:Strip tillage or zonal tillage refers to a system where strips 5 to 20 cm in width are prepared to receive the seed whilst the soil along the intervening bands is not disturbed and remains covered with residues. The system causes more soil disturbance and provides less cover along the rows than zero tillage. Tined tillage or vertical tillage refers to a system where the arable land is prepared with equipment which does not invert the soil and which cause little compaction. For this reason, the surface normally remains with a good cover of residues on the surface. Ridge tillage is a system of ridges and furrows. The ridges may be narrow or wide and the furrows can be parallel to the contour lines or constructed with a slight slope, depending on whether the objective is to conserve moisture or to drain excess moisture. The ridges can be semi-permanent or be constructed each year which will govern the amount of residue material that remains on the surface. Conventional tillageRefers to the arable land treated by conventional tillage which involves inversion of the soil, normally with a moldboard or a disc plough as the primary tillage operation, followed by secondary tillage with a disc harrow. Zero tillageRefers to the arable land on which no tillage is applied between harvest and sowing. Zero tillage is a minimum tillage practice in which the crop is sown directly into soil not tilled since the harvest of the previous crop. Weed control is achieved by the use of herbicides and or appropriate mulching and stubble is retained for erosion control.


Zero tillageRefers to the arable land on which no tillage is applied between harvest and sowing. Zero tillage is a minimum tillage practice in which the crop is sown directly into soil not tilled since the harvest of the previous crop. Weed control is achieved by the use of herbicides and or appropriate mulching and stubble is retained for erosion control. AgroforestryIt s the cultivation and use of trees and shrubs with crops and livestock in agricultural systems. Characteristics of AgroforestryWhile selecting tree species for agroforestry systems, the following desirable characteristics should be taken into consideration. Though all desirable characters are not found in a single species, but their multiple uses are taken care of. Tree species selected should not interfere with soil moistureTree species selected for agroforestry should have very less water requirementShould not compete with main agricultural crops for water. Tree species should be deep tap rooted so that they can draw water from deep strata of the soil. Tree species should not compete for plant nutrientsTree species should not utilize more plant nutrientsThey should help in building soil fertility,Leguminous tree species which fix atmospheric nitrogen in their roots should be prefered. The root system and root growth characteristics should ideally result in to exploration of soil layers that are different to those being trapped by agricultural crops. Tree species should not compete for sunlightTree species should not interrupt sunlight falling on the crops. Tree species should be light branching in their habit. Trees permit the penetration of light into the ground and promote better crop, pasture growth and yield. Tree species can withstand pruning operation if it possess dense canopy. Tree species should have high survival rate and easy establishmentTrees species should have high survival percentage,Leave little or no gaps after transplanting. Hardy tree species are easy to establish. They have less mortality percentage because they can tolerate transplanting shocks easily. Trees should have the ability to regenerate lateral roots within a short period of time after transplanting. Tree species should have fast growing habit and easy managementTree species for agroforestry system should be essentially fast growing,Rapid growth, especially in the early years,Tree should have short rotation the period between planting and final harvesting Fast growing speciesTree species should have wider adaptabilityA tree species selected for agroforestry combinations must have a wider adaptability.


They have less mortality percentage because they can tolerate transplanting shocks easily. Trees should have the ability to regenerate lateral roots within a short period of time after transplanting. Tree species should have fast growing habit and easy managementTree species for agroforestry system should be essentially fast growing,Rapid growth, especially in the early years,Tree should have short rotation the period between planting and final harvesting Fast growing speciesTree species should have wider adaptabilityA tree species selected for agroforestry combinations must have a wider adaptability. Tree species should have high palatability as a fodderMost of the Indian farmer s rear livestock separately and cut and carry method of fodder production is quite prevalent. Therefore, in agroforestry, farmer must select those tree species which are palatable to livestock and had a high digestibility. Tree species should have shelter conferring and soil stabilization attributesSome tree species, because of their inherent growth habit and adaptability, are especially helpful in providing protection for soils, crops and livestock. Tree species should have capability to withstand management practicesMany agroforestry systems demand extensive pruning and lopping of the trees in order to maximize production. In such cases, the trees must be able to withstand such treatment without drastically restricting growth rate. Tree species should have nutrient cycling and nitrogen fixation attributesWithin an agroforestry system, trees can play an important role in recycling nutrients, leached down through the soil profile and minerals released from weathering parent material such as rocks and sediments. These nutrients are used in the growth and development of the tree, many returning to the top-soil in form of dead leaves, twigs, flowers and seeds which slowly decompose on the surface, or are eaten by animals. Although all trees play some role in maintaining the nutrient status of the soil through recycling. Deciduous trees drop most of their leaves in autumn leaving a thick mat of leaves on the ground, whereas most evergreen species maintain some level of litter fall throughout the year. Another important factor is the ability of many tree species to convert atmospheric nitrogen into organic nitrogen for their own use through complex symbiotic relationship between Rhizobium bacteria and their fine roots. The bacteria form nodules on the roots which can convert nitrogen gas, as it is in the atmosphere, into usable nitrogen for the plant. The litter of these nitrogen fixing trees is generally high in nitrogen, thus increasing the nitrogen status of the soil.


Another important factor is the ability of many tree species to convert atmospheric nitrogen into organic nitrogen for their own use through complex symbiotic relationship between Rhizobium bacteria and their fine roots. The bacteria form nodules on the roots which can convert nitrogen gas, as it is in the atmosphere, into usable nitrogen for the plant. The litter of these nitrogen fixing trees is generally high in nitrogen, thus increasing the nitrogen status of the soil. Tree species should have thin barkSpecies selected for agroforestry combinations should not shed its bark regularly but it should retain for longer period as bark shedding creates unhygienic conditions for under-ground crop. Tree species should be free from chemical exudationsThe species selected for agroforestry combination must be free from chemicals as these chemicals affect the growth of under-ground crops. Tree species should have easily decomposable leavesThe suitable tree species for agroforestry will be that one in which fallen leaves decompose with fast rate. The leaves of most of the legume tree species are small in size, decompose quickly and easily, and add a large quantity of organic matter and nutrients to the soil. Tree species having broad leaves such as teak, mango and banyan should not be preferred for agroforestry system. They contain more fibre matter and also require longer time for decomposition. Further, broad leaves when fall on the tender crop plants, block their photosynthetic activities. Tree species should have their multiple usesThe selected tree species should have multiple uses. The tree should yield more than one of the main produce like fuelwood, leaf fodder, edible fruit, edible flower and fibre. Tree species should have high yield potentialHigh yield potential is the most important criterion of selection of tree species for agroforestry systems as the main aim is to obtain overall more output per unit area. Care should be taken before collection of seeds and seedlings that they are being procured from reliable source. Suitable tree species for agroforestry Leucaena leucocephala Gravillea robusta Calliandra catothrysus Mangifera indica Sesbania sesban Lantana camara Cajanus cajanCHARACTERISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS FOR AGROFORESTRYa Agricultural crops should be short duration and quick growing. B They should be at least partially tolerant to shade.


Care should be taken before collection of seeds and seedlings that they are being procured from reliable source. Suitable tree species for agroforestry Leucaena leucocephala Gravillea robusta Calliandra catothrysus Mangifera indica Sesbania sesban Lantana camara Cajanus cajanCHARACTERISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS FOR AGROFORESTRYa Agricultural crops should be short duration and quick growing. B They should be at least partially tolerant to shade. C Most of them should belong to Leguminous family. D They should respond well to high density tree planting. E They should bear some adverse conditions, like water stress and or excess of watering;f Crops should return adequate organic matter to soil through their fallen leaves, root system, stumps, etc. G Crops should appropriately be fitted in intensive or multiple cropping system. Advantages Importance of agroforestrySaves labour since some operations can be done at once for both plants and treesGives higher combined yieldProvide wide variety of agricultural produceReduces the risks of total failureCrops benefit from nitrogen fixing trees. Trees help in holding the soil firmlySome trees act as livestock fodder. Provides a wider variety of agricultural produce. Disadvantages of AgroforestryMechanization is difficult. Use of pesticides and fertilizer may be difficult. Productivity may suffer because the skills for managing the different treesSTRAND TWOCROP PRODUCTIONPreparation of planting sitePreparing land for planting is one of the most important parts of cultivating abundance. Whether you're planting fruit trees, wildlife corridors, or an annual garden, prepping the soil in the first place is the best way to set yourself up for success over the long haul. There are numerous methods that you can use for preparing land for planting that will help me make the living world around me come alive.


Productivity may suffer because the skills for managing the different treesSTRAND TWOCROP PRODUCTIONPreparation of planting sitePreparing land for planting is one of the most important parts of cultivating abundance. Whether you're planting fruit trees, wildlife corridors, or an annual garden, prepping the soil in the first place is the best way to set yourself up for success over the long haul. There are numerous methods that you can use for preparing land for planting that will help me make the living world around me come alive. One-Time TillingMulch AloneSheet MulchingDouble DiggingSolarizingAnimals focus on chickens and pigs Crop establishmentCategories of planting materialsTypes of Planting Materials Seeds seasoning herbs, legumes, corn Seedlings most vegetable crops Cuttings cassava, potato, yam, ginger, dasheen, tannia, eddoes Suckers banana, plantain Budded grafted plants fruit trees Certain Factors need to be considered when you are choosing planting matter or seedlings from nurseries or plant shop. Environmental Factors The surroundings should be free from overgrown bushes, generally clean, no waterlogged conditions Seedlings should be in conditions that are free from excess shade. If seedlings have too much shade they do not harden off and they have difficulties when they are transplanted. Seedling CharacteristicsThe seedlings should:1. Be of the appropriate age seedlings with 4-6 healthy green leaves 2. Be free from pests and diseases3. Have healthy white roots good root development, with no balling of roots 4. Show vigorous, healthy growth5. Be of uniform appearance6. Have the proper Shoot to Root ratio 2:1 Methods of planting various cropsBroadcasting: Generally, the seeds are broadcast-sown and later planked. This method of sowing is easier and area coverage is quick. However, uniform population cannot be maintained since the seeds are not placed in uniform depth and germination may not be uniform. The skill of the labour is important to sow the seeds evenly covering the entire field. Broadcast-sowing is normally practiced under dryland condition. Seed requirement is generally high for broadcast sowing. Sowing behind the country plough: In this method, sowing is taken up behind the country plough operation.


Broadcast-sowing is normally practiced under dryland condition. Seed requirement is generally high for broadcast sowing. Sowing behind the country plough: In this method, sowing is taken up behind the country plough operation. Seeds are dropped in the furrow opened during ploughing and subsequently covered while the next adjoining furrow is formed. Bold seeded crops like groundnut are sown by this method in drylands. It is important to take up sowing at the appropriate soil moisture so that the depth of sowing is uniformly maintained. Drill sowing or drilling: Drill sowing is one of the best methods that provides uniform plant population since seeds are uniformly dropped in the furrows. Animal drawn or power operated seed drills are used for this purposes; seed cum fertilizer drill can also be used. By this way, depth of sowing can be maintained; fertilizer can also be applied simultaneously. Pelleting of small sized seeds may reduce the risk of irregular dropping. Since sowing is taken up in lines, intercultural operations can be easily practiced. It is possible to take up sowing of intercrops also. Dibbling: In the method, a seed or few seeds are put in a hole and covered. Under irrigated condition, seeds are dibbled in lines or on the sides of the ridges maintaining optimum intra- row spacing, e.g. maize and cotton. Though this method is laborious and time consuming, it gives rapid and uniform germination and the requirement of seed is less than in broadcasting. Methods of Plant PropagationCuttingThis is cutting the vegetative part of the plant leaf, stem, and root and then planting it again to regenerate the whole plant. The three types of cutting are named after the plant part being detached cut:Stem cuttingLeaf cuttingRoot cutting2. DivisionThis is a suitable technique for perennials plants that live for more than two years . It involves dividing the plant by digging and moving it to an already prepared site. This helps the plant to rejuvenate and reduce water and nutrient competition. 3. LayeringIn this technique, the attached and bent branch of the plant is covered with soil and allowed to root. After the emergence and development of roots that specific part of the plant is cut and allowed to grow as a new plant. This is called layering . 4.


After the emergence and development of roots that specific part of the plant is cut and allowed to grow as a new plant. This is called layering . 4. GraftingThis involves cutting a twig of one plant and joining it with the stem of another plant in such a manner that they form a unit and function as one plant. It is a bit of a complex process but allows you to bring the desired character to your plant. However, be sure to sterilize your hands and tools to make sure you don t transfer any infections during the process. 5. BuddingIn this method, a cut is made in the rootstock and a single bud with little or no wood is inserted into it in such a way that they unite and grow as a new plant. Time of planting depends on the following factorsSoil and weather conditionsThe kind of crop to be planted. The time the produce is desired. CROP MANAGEMENTAdoption of best crop management practices improves crop productivity and can contribute to greater yields with improved quality. Crop management is the set of agricultural practices performed to improve the growth, development and yield of crops. It begins with a seedbed preparation, sowing of seeds and crop maintenance; and ends with crop harvest, storage and marketing. The timing and sequence of agricultural practices depend upon several factors, such as winter or spring crops; harvested products such as grain, hay and silage; sowing methods-broadcast and row-crops; and, plants age, soil, climate and weather conditions. Physical methods of weedingManual controlManual control is the use of the hands or handheld tools to deal with. An advantage of manual control is that it minimizes soil disturbance, and decreases the likelihood of erosion and seed germination. Hand pullingHand pulling aims to remove the entire plant, including its roots, from the soil. This method is useful for small-scale infestations. It is best to hand-pull weeds after rain, when soil is moist. Sturdy gloves should be worn to avoid prickles, blisters or sap burns to the skin. It is not appropriate for all weed species, such as those with underground bulbs. Hand tools such as broad knives and trowels can be used to remove underground parts of weeds such as bulbs that may reshoot. In some cases it is necessary to dig out the crown of the plant. This requires the growing part of the plant to be cut beneath the ground using a knife.


Hand tools such as broad knives and trowels can be used to remove underground parts of weeds such as bulbs that may reshoot. In some cases it is necessary to dig out the crown of the plant. This requires the growing part of the plant to be cut beneath the ground using a knife. Grubbing or chippingThis method requires weeds to be dug out using a mattock or chip hoe. Depending on the plant, it may be important to expose the root system, and remove the crown. In some cases, the mattock or chip hoe is used to cut the stem of the plant below the ground. This method is useful when the ground is hard. Gloves should be worn to avoid blisters. Mechanical controlMechanical control is the use of powered tools and machinery to manage weeds and is best suited to larger infestations. Care should be taken to minimise soil disturbance. Slashing, mowing, dozing, pushing and fellingAt times, controlling weeds using mechanical methods is preferred. However, care should be taken when machinery is used in the process. Disturbing the soil with mechanical control can:increase the likelihood of seed germinationdamage native vegetation. Bulldozers and chainsaws can be used on woody and tree weeds where they are pushed or felled and finally snigged dragged away . These methods are only suitable in certain situations, as they create high levels of soil and vegetation disturbance. Also, shoots and seedlings require follow-up attention. Grading or scalping the top layer of soil is an effective method of removing a seedbank. As this method greatly disturbs the soil, it is best suited for areas that are to undergo complete rehabilitation. Earth UpEarthing up refers to the act of heaping soil around the root zone of the potato plant. It is one of the primary production practices that must be done to increase the potato yield. Advantages of earthing upimproves tuber formation expansion roots pods formationImproves drainage around the cropConserves water soilFacilitates harvesting of tuber cropsRoot protectionManaging plant spacesThinningWhen the young seedlings are too close to each other, they do not grow well. They do not find enough nourishment in the soil and their leaves do not have enough room to develop. Leave only the strongest plants and remove the others. This is called thinning.


They do not find enough nourishment in the soil and their leaves do not have enough room to develop. Leave only the strongest plants and remove the others. This is called thinning. When you take out the seedlings that are small, diseased or misshapen, be very careful not to damage the seedlings which remain in the beds. At the end, pack down the earth around the base of the plants and water them. StakingVegetables with long and weak stems, for example beans and tomatoes, need stakes. A stake is a stick firmly embedded in the earth. It is best to use hard wood, which does not rot. PruningCertain vegetables, like tomatoes, beans, eggplant, need pruning. Nip off surplus buds. Then there will be more fruits and they will be bigger. GappingWhen the seeds fail to germinate, empty spaces are seen within the rows. This if left unfilled can make the farmer incur losses as a result of low yields. The filling up of these spaces or the replacement of ungerminated seeds is called gapping. Advantages of thinning and gappingBoth thinning and gap filling ensures ideal plant population and optimum utilization of sunlight, space, nutrients, moisture and other inputs which ultimately increases yield. Crop hardeningHardening, or "hardening off," is the process of allowing a plant to transition from a protected indoor or greenhouse environment to the harsh outdoor conditions of fluctuating spring temperatures, wind, and full sun exposure. A gradual introduction of these outdoor stresses will cause the plant to accumulate carbohydrates, to trigger more root development, to reduce the amount of freeze-prone water in the plant, and to actually thicken its cell walls. Plant growth will change from soft and supple to much firmer and harder. Hardening TimetableStart the process of moving plants outdoors about two weeks before the weather will be favorable enough for the particular plant to live outdoors. Check seed package instructions or inquire where you purchase seedlings as to when the plant can tolerate outdoor conditions. Keep in mind that air temperature is often warmer than soil temperature. This Vegetable Planting and Transplanting Guide provides guidance for when some popular crops can be planted outdoors. Hardening ProcessWhen temperatures are at least 45-50 , move plants outdoors to a shady, protected spot. Initially place in the shaded, sheltered location for two to three hours.


Demand stricter laws for the protection of animals. ... Shelter an animal in need. Importance of Human treatment of animalsImproved levels of animal health and care will deliver better animal welfare, more efficient livestock production, safer animal-sourced foods and healthier, improved livelihoods. Animals that are well fed and watered, kept in clean and comfortable conditions, and that are handled well with opportunities to express important behaviours are less likely to die prematurely or show poor growth than less well cared for animals. They are more productive with more efficient use of resources such as time, labour and feed for livestock production bringing benefits including improved food security and greater income. Furthermore, avoiding stress before slaughter reduces contamination of meat with harmful bacteria and affects the quality, and value of the meat. Animal welfare is therefore also environmental protection. However, it is not only animals in stables or private households that need to be protected, but also animals in the wild. There they need above all plenty of space, clean water, fresh air, and sufficient food and shelter. General Management of PetsCharacteristics of petsDependent on Humans to Live A pet needs to be given food, water, and shelter by its owner. Being domesticated means the animal depends on its owner for all of its care. Lives in a Home A pet lives in a home. Some pets such as parakeets and hamsters live in cages. Alternatively, dogs and cats wander freely around a home and may have their own bed to sleep in. Needs a Veterinarian s Care Pets need care from a veterinarian. The type of healthcare a pet needs depends on what type of pet it is. An iguana and a beagle need completely different types of vet care! Some Pets Can Be Trained A dog can learn how to sit, stay, and heel in a course of obedience training. Parrots can be taught to talk, and some cats can be taught by humans to do tricks. Devoted to Its Owner Pets are often devoted to their owners. They can establish a trust with their owner over time. In fact, some pets want to be with their owners 24 7! Provides Companionship A pet is meant to be a companion to its owner. Pets are Different from a Therapy Animal A therapy animal receives specific training in order to provide support and care to its owner. As an example, some therapy dogs are trained to recognize the signs of a seizure in their owner.


Provides Companionship A pet is meant to be a companion to its owner. Pets are Different from a Therapy Animal A therapy animal receives specific training in order to provide support and care to its owner. As an example, some therapy dogs are trained to recognize the signs of a seizure in their owner. The dog responds by trying to get the person to a safe place. Alternatively, a pet is there strictly as a companion. Different from a Farm Animal A cow or a chicken living on a farm serves a specific purpose. A cow provides milk while a chicken lays eggs to be eaten or sold. This makes farm animals a little different than traditional pets. Can Be Common or Uncommon When you think of a pet you probably picture a dog, a cat, a bird, a fish, or a gerbil. Those are common choices for pets. Some people prefer less common or exotic pets such as snakes, iguanas, spiders, and ferrets. As long as an owner can offer appropriate care, many animals can live happily as pets. Cannot Survive in the Wild One of the main characteristics separating pets from other animals is a pet can t survive in the wild. It has been domesticated or raised under a person s care. So, releasing a pet snake into the wild doesn t mean it will know how to find food or shelter. In fact, it will likely die. Different types of pets reared in the communityA pet is a domesticated animal that lives with an individual or family. There are popular, well-known pets like dogs and catsDogsCatRodentsFishBirdsTurtlesSnakeFactors to consider when selecting a pet for rearingChoose a pet that will suit your lifestyle and surroundings. For instance:How often are you home? If you work long hours, a dog may not be a good choice of pet, as all dogs require lots of companionship. In this case, pets such as fish might be more suitable. How large is your backyard, and do you have good fencing? If you have a small backyard or poor fencing, then a dog may not be a good choice. You could consider a pet such as a cat that lives indoors with you. Are you prepared to have more than one pet? Some types of animals, such as birds and rabbits, need the company of each other to stay happy and healthy. How much money can you afford to spend on your pet?


Are you prepared to have more than one pet? Some types of animals, such as birds and rabbits, need the company of each other to stay happy and healthy. How much money can you afford to spend on your pet? All pets are expensive even animals that are cheap to purchase, like fish, birds and guinea pigs, can cost a lot of money when it comes to buying and setting up tanks, cages and hutches. Some dog breeds will cost more to keep than others. Large dogs need more food, some breeds of dogs need regular clipping of their coats. Are you renting? Your landlord may not let you to own a cat or a dog. You may want to consider other pets such as fish. Do you live in an apartment? Some birds, such as parrots, can be very noisy, and may attract complaints from neighbours. You may want to consider a quiet pet such as a cat, or fish. Do you have young children? Some types of pets tolerate children better than others. Are you prepared to have your pet inside with you? Dogs should not be left in the backyard all day they need to spend time inside the house with you, in order to remain happy and healthy. Does your council require cats to be confined to your property? If so, you must be prepared to have your cat live inside with you, or to buy or build cat proof fencing or a cat enclosure. How much time do you have to exercise your pet? Dogs need daily walks. Some breeds of dog are more energetic than others and may need longer or more frequent walks. How much time do you have to train your pet? Dogs, particularly puppies or young dogs, need time spent on toilet training and basic obedience training. Puppies and kittens also require lots of socialization, and regular small meals throughout the day, during the first 6 months of life. You may be better off adopting an adult dog or cat, who is already house trained and socialized. Acquiring a pet for rearingAdoption is the best choiceAdoption of a pet from a shelter is the best way to find a new companion. There are many animals in shelters waiting for a new home to call their own, including a large variety of breeds, sizes, and ages of animals. Some shelters also rehome small mammals such as rabbits, guinea pigs and hamsters who are often sadly taken to shelters when the children they have been bought for have lost interest in caring for them.


Acquiring a pet for rearingAdoption is the best choiceAdoption of a pet from a shelter is the best way to find a new companion. There are many animals in shelters waiting for a new home to call their own, including a large variety of breeds, sizes, and ages of animals. Some shelters also rehome small mammals such as rabbits, guinea pigs and hamsters who are often sadly taken to shelters when the children they have been bought for have lost interest in caring for them. The benefit of rehoming from a reputable animal shelter is that the animals will have been assessed both in terms of their health and behaviorallyBrokers,pet stores,neighbors,professional breeders,commercial kennels,puppy mills, and animal sheltersManagement practices in rearing of petsColostrum feedingWeaningDisbudding - Arresting the horn growth at an early age, when the horn root is in the bud stage is called disbudding. Ear taggingCastrationVaccination schedule for adult animalsDisinfectionQuarantineIsolation of sick animalsInsuring the animalsDisposal of carcassRecord maintenancePreparation of Animal productsDifferent animal products include:meat and meat products, poultry products meat and eggs , fish, shellfish, dairy products milk and cheese , and non-food products such as fiber wool, mohair, cashmere, and leather Factors to consider when grading eggsThe grade is determined by theinterior quality of the eggthe appearance and condition of the egg shell. Eggs of any quality grade may differ in weight size . Weight or VolumecleanlinessSize,ColourFactors considered in detecting defects when grading eggsblood spot,meat spot,mold,stuck yolk,addled egg andembryonic growthProcessing raw honeyThe process of honey harvesting and extraction most likely happens on separate days.


Ear taggingCastrationVaccination schedule for adult animalsDisinfectionQuarantineIsolation of sick animalsInsuring the animalsDisposal of carcassRecord maintenancePreparation of Animal productsDifferent animal products include:meat and meat products, poultry products meat and eggs , fish, shellfish, dairy products milk and cheese , and non-food products such as fiber wool, mohair, cashmere, and leather Factors to consider when grading eggsThe grade is determined by theinterior quality of the eggthe appearance and condition of the egg shell. Eggs of any quality grade may differ in weight size . Weight or VolumecleanlinessSize,ColourFactors considered in detecting defects when grading eggsblood spot,meat spot,mold,stuck yolk,addled egg andembryonic growthProcessing raw honeyThe process of honey harvesting and extraction most likely happens on separate days. These are the tools required:Honey Harvest1 beekeepers suite - mesh helmet and folding veil would do it, with some layers of clothes2 smoker with fuel dry branches, leaves, etc. And a lighter3 frame super - where frames with honey combs will be put for transportation4 sting resistant gloves5 hive tool - to move the frames, scrape wax, etc. Honey Extraction1 heated knife - to unseal honey cells2 uncapping fork - to unseal honey cells missed by the heated knife3 tub for wax honey4 extractor! -. Fancy cylindrical piece of equipment, used to extract honey5 food-grade bucket - to catch honey out of the extractor6 double sieve - catches wax and impurities as honey is poured from extractor7 containers - final destination of honey before consumptionThe process of honey harvesting and extraction most likely happens on separate days. These are the tools required:HarvestingLight the smoker. Use dry branches, hay or newspaper. The smoke dulls the bees' receptors, and prevents them from releasing the alarm odor, a volatile pheromone. The smoke also makes bees gorge on honey, which further pacifies themPrepare SupersThe frames with honey comb are transported in supers. Have them handy. You may also want to have a cloth to cover the super with frames full of honey to prevent bees or other insects from getting to them.


The smoke also makes bees gorge on honey, which further pacifies themPrepare SupersThe frames with honey comb are transported in supers. Have them handy. You may also want to have a cloth to cover the super with frames full of honey to prevent bees or other insects from getting to them. Open SesameUsing the hive tool, lift the hive lid and blow some smoke in the hive. Open lid slowly. Our bees were pretty calm, but that is not always the case! Honey Frame InspectionPull the frames out of the super and inspect the honey combs. Depending on how busy the bees were, how warm it was and if the hive didn't swarm you will know how much honey you have. ExtractionNow the best part! Take the frame of capped honey. Mount the frame above the tub for wax and honey. Use the heated knife to unseal the cells. Lean the heated knife on the edges of the frame and under 30 degree angle and move "fast" - don't linger too long, it burns the honey! Repeat for both sides of the frame. The heated knife takes off most of the caps. For the leftover ones, use the uncapping fork and gently shave off the caps. Pour Out Slowly! Place your food-grade bucket under the extractor spigot. Use a double sieve to catch the wax and impurities as the honey starts pouring out of the extractor. Prepare ContainersWash your jugs, jars or whatever containers you will put the honey in. Air dry. Extracting honey without a honey extractorFor small apiaries, harvesting honey without an extractor can be a fun and inexpensive option. We ll cover two methods that do not require an extractor: the crush and strain method, and the cut comb method. Both of these extraction methods sacrifice comb, meaning your bees will need to draw out new comb before they can produce more honey which can mean a smaller harvest the next year. This may factor into your decision about which method you use. The crush and strain method is a low-cost honey processing technique. You simply scrape the honeycomb off of the frame into a bucket, then crush the comb. Place a sieve in another bucket or container, pour the crushed comb into the sieve, and strain it overnight. This process may be best suited for hobby beekeepers who only have one or two hives.


You simply scrape the honeycomb off of the frame into a bucket, then crush the comb. Place a sieve in another bucket or container, pour the crushed comb into the sieve, and strain it overnight. This process may be best suited for hobby beekeepers who only have one or two hives. The honey will move more quickly in a warm room, and you may be able to get more honey if you stir the crushed combs a few times and scrape large wax flakes off of the inside of the strainer. Cut comb honey is an elegant way to package and use your harvest. There are tools available for cutting and packaging comb, but a good-quality kitchen knife does the job nicely, as well. This method works only for frames that contain wireless wax foundation or no foundation you cannot use this method with frames that use plastic foundations, and wired wax foundation will limit the sizes and shapes of combs you can cut. Choose frames that are fully capped and sealed this indicates that the honey will have the right amount of moisture to prevent spoiling. Importance of sorting and grading eggsSorted eggs bring more money to the investor than unsorted. It reduces wastage. Separates eggs into grades of quality. A bad egg can be dangerous to consume and negatively affect someone's health. Importance of processing raw honeyimproves the honey's appearance,increases its shelf-life, andkills yeast cells that can affect the taste of the honey. It can prevent fermentation. It delays crystallization. Removes impurities. STRAND FOURAGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGYoff season cropping techniquesOff season cultivation refers to the production outside of their typical cropping cycle. The main objective of off season cultivation is to produce and supply to the market during their lean period. Importance Advantages of off season croppingIt helps in the more effective and efficient use of land and farm resources. The per-unit result of off-season planting is excellent. Consumers nowadays prefer fresh veggies even when they are not in season, and off-season vegetable cultivation can meet this need. It is sometimes feasible to gain foreign exchange by exporting fresh veggies. It is a great source of preventive food that also contributes to nutritional security. It's a good choice for seed production. Technologies for off season croppingDrip irrigationCrop yields can increase through improved water and fertility management and reduced disease and weed pressure. When drip irrigation is used with polyethylene mulch, yields can increase even further.


Construction of suspended garden designRefer to learner s bookVALUE ADDITION TECHNIQUESValue-added agriculture generally focuses on production or manufacturing processes, marketing or services that increase the value of primary agricultural commodities, perhaps by increasing appeal to the consumer and the consumer's willingness to pay a premium over similar but undifferentiated products. Benefits include:increased income,employment creation,improved food safety,food security,nutritional benefits andgreater consumer confidence. There are four major ways that value is added to crops along the value chain:product transformation, e.g. frying, dryingdistribution,storage, andadded service. The value of farm products can be increased by cleaning, cooling, cooking, combining, churning, culturing, grinding, extracting, drying, handcrafting, packaging and distributing, as well as by adding information, education or entertainment,Adding value to groundnutsApart from just eating them raw or cooked, groundnuts can be used to produce oil, paste, flour or sauce used in cakes and cookies obtained by grinding nuts, and peanut butter. Adding value to PotatoesThis can be done through boiling, frying, smashing. Learners to check on how to add value on other productsImportance of addition on crop produce explained Increased revenue. Any addition adds a percentage of increased financial value to the produce and has the effect of improving the incomes of the local farmers. Value addition allows the farmer to focus on the consumer while producing and through meeting expectations, he can create a loyal market around the product. Increased shelf life is a benefit any farmer would want. The longer the product can stay without getting spoilt, the more the guarantee one has of a product selling at their preferred price and time. Milk for instance, hardly lasts over 24 hours but with boiling, it can last more days while with further processing into ghee, the same milk can last months. With value addition comes increased bargaining power. Brand Creation is one of the de facto results of value addition and a fact that your product can be directly identified with you or your farm which is important in an industry where customers exercise a lot of brand loyalty. It allows them to always and readily identify with you as well as win you more referral customers. Value addition creates employment opportunities for people who work there like; industrial chemists, food processors, factory laborersWastage and disposal of unwanted refuse is curtailed since they can be made into different quality products.


Brand Creation is one of the de facto results of value addition and a fact that your product can be directly identified with you or your farm which is important in an industry where customers exercise a lot of brand loyalty. It allows them to always and readily identify with you as well as win you more referral customers.value addition creates employment opportunities for people who work there like; industrial chemists, food processors, factory laborersWastage and disposal of unwanted refuse is curtailed since they can be made into different quality products. This helps to ensure zero waste and protect the environment.


GRADE 8 RATIONALIZED AGRICULTURE AND NUTRITION LESSON NOTESSTRAND 1-CONSERVING AGRICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT1.1 -Soil Conservation Measures. Soil conservation measures refers to a combination of practices done or taken to prevent the loss of soil through soil erosion. Reasons Importance for Soil conservation. To keep top soil in its place. To maintain fertility in the soil. To maintain soil productivity. Helps to increase agricultural production promotes food security. Methods of soil conservation in agricultural environment. Strip cropping. Grassed water ways. Stone lines. Trash lines. Soil bunds. A. Strip cropping. It is the growing of crops in a way that crops that have little soil cover like maize are grown in alternating strips with those that have good ground cover such as sweet potatoes. Permanent vegetation such as grass can also be used as strips. The role of strip crop is it prevents loss of soil through surface runoff. B. Grassed water ways. Grassed waterways are natural or man-made shallow channels in which excess rain water flows. Grass and other vegetations are planted to grow in the channels. When surface run off is directed in the channels, the vegetation in the channels lower the speed of run off and also traps eroded soil. C. Stone lines. These are stones of different sizes heaped in a line along the contour to prevent loss of soil down the slope through run off. Stone lines reduce speed of run off increasing water infiltration especially in semi-arid areas. Water infiltration is the downward entry of water into the soil from the surface. Stone lines are suitable in gently slopes. D. Trash lines. Trash lines are plant materials or crop residues remains arranged along the contour in a cultivated field. Trash lines help to reduce runoff hence preventing loss of soil from land. They also increase water infiltration into the soil. Trash line should be 1 m wide and 0.5 m high. E. Soil bunds. A bund refers to a heap of compacted soil made along the contours. Grasses can be grown on top of the bunds to hold soil together firmly. Bunds help to reduce the volume of water flowing downwards in a cultivated field after rain fall. Bunds enhance water infiltration. NOTE:Most structures constructed to conserve the soil are made along the contour line. Therefore, it is very important to establish the contour lines first before construction of the structures.


Bunds enhance water infiltration. NOTE:Most structures constructed to conserve the soil are made along the contour line. Therefore, it is very important to establish the contour lines first before construction of the structures. Contour lines are established to guide the position of the soil conservation measures. Contour farming is the farming carried out across the slope rather than up and down. Therefore, contour lines run across the slope and not up and down. A farm layout is a drawn plan that shows various farm enterprises and where they are placed in the farm. A farm layout is a plan of how various farm components enterprises are arranged and set up on the farm. A farm model guides the farmer to locate various farm activities and structures for convenience. What is the importance of Farm layout? It helps in maximum utilization use of land. Farm enterprise are orderly arranged. Local available material that can be used to make a farm model in school include: Cartons. Cardboards. Soil. Papier mache. 1.2 -Water Harvesting and StorageIn rainy season, a lot of water goes in waste. This water can be harvested and stored then used for farming purposes. Methods of harvesting and storing water for farming purposes. There are various methods used to harvest and store water for farming purposes. Use of rooftops. Use of diversion channels. Directs water into water ponds and water tanks. Water ponds. Shallow water pans. Tanks. Shallow water pansGrass should be planted around the shallow water pan to:Control soil erosion. Control sedimentation. Constructing Shallow water pan. Measure desired size of the structure. -. Dig out soil to the desired length and width with depth between 1 to 3 metres. Make conveyor or small channels that directs surface runoff to the structure. Water pondConstruction of a water pond. Mark desired measurements on ground. Dig out the soil. Place a polythene liner evenly covering the sides and the base. Reinforce the liner by placing soil in the upper part around the pond. Plant grass around the pond to control erosion and sedimentation. Make channels to transfer surface runoff. Water tanks. Water tanks can be used to collect surface runoff or water from the rooftops. Ensure water flow into the tank by removing any materials such as gravel, sediments from the sieve entrance of the tank. Gutters should be fixed around the house to collect water when it rains and direct it to the tank through pipes for storage.