Phosphorous. H2PO4, P2O5 It occurs in the soil either in organic or in inorganic forms. It is converted into phosphates by microorganisms, which can be absorbed by plants. Since phosphates are relatively soluble in water they are not easily leached. SourceOrganic manuresCommercial fertilizersPhosphate rocksRole of PhosphorousRoot development and nodules formationInfluences cell division. Strengthens plant stems preventing lodging. Hastens maturity of the crop, flowering, and fruit and seed formation. Plays an important role in metabolic processes such as respiration, protein, fat and carbohydrate formationDeficiency symptomsStunted growth. Delayed maturity. Increased production of anthocyanin pigment hence purple colour. Yield of grains, fruits and seed is lowered. Effects of excess PhosphorousIt leads to unavailability of iron, which is converted, into insoluble compounds, which cannot be absorbed by plants. Loss of phosphorous from the soilSoil erosionLeachingCrop removalFixation by iron and aluminium oxide. 3. Potassium. K , K2O SourcesCrop residue and organic manuresCommercial fertilizersPotassium bearing rocks e.g. mica and feldspar. Role of potassiumComponent of chlorophyll molecule. Plays important role in carbohydrate formation and translocation. Assists in the uptake of nitrates from the soil and balances the effect on phosphorous and nitrogen uptake by plants. Neutralizes organic acids in plants. Strengthens plant stalks increasing plant vigour and disease resistance. Symptoms of potassium deficiencyLeaf curlingChlorosisPremature leaf fallStunted growth. Leaves develop a burnt scorched appearance on the margin. Loss of potassium from the soilCrop removalLeachingSoil erosionFixation in the soil. 4. Calcium Ca . SourcesCrop residues and organic matter. Commercial fertilizers. Weathering of soil minerals. Agricultural lime such as dolomite and limestone. Role of Calcium in plantsProtein synthesis. Corrects soil PH increasing soil Cation Exchange Capacity CEC making more nutrients such as phosphorous and potassium more available. Improves the vigour and strength of straw. Helps in grain and seed formation. Improves the soil structure. Promotes bacteria activity in the soil.


Helps in grain and seed formation. Improves the soil structure. Promotes bacteria activity in the soil. Deficiency symptomsBlossom end rot in tomatoesStunted growthDying back of plant tips. Young leaves remain closed. Loss of calciumCrop removalLeachingSoil erosion. 5. Magnesium Mg 2 . SourcesCrop residues and organic manuresCommercial fertilizersAgricultural limeWeathering of soil minerals. Role of magnesiumSynthesis of oil in crops such as Soya beans and groundnuts. Forms part of the chlorophyll. Promotes the growth of soil bacteria and enhances the nitrogen fixation power of the legumes. Activates the production and transport of carbohydrates and proteins in the growing plant. Deficiency symptomsInter-venial Chlorosis of the leaves where the parts between the veins become yellow. Leaves turn purple then brown and eventually die. Leaves curve upwards along the margin. Stalks become weak and the plant develops long branched roots. 6. Sulphur SO42- . SourcesCommercial fertilizers. Soil minerals containing Sulphide such as gypsum and pyrites. Atmospheric sulphur from industries through rainwater. Role of sulphurFormation of proteins and plant hormones. Formation and activation of certain Co-enzymes such as coenzyme A. Influences plant physiological processes such as protein synthesis, chlorophyll formation, carbohydrate metabolism and nitrogen fixation. Deficiency symptomsStunted growthPoor nodulation in legumesLeaf Chlorosis hence anthocyanin pigment production. Thin stems and delayed maturity. Carbon, Oxygen and HydrogenThey are derived from the atmosphere and soil water. The three are raw material for photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Oxygen is also needed for respiration to produce energy. Micro NutrientsThey are also referred to as trace or minor elements. They are required in small quantities but they are essential for proper growth and development of plants. They include iron, manganese, copper boron, molybdenum and chlorine. Role of micronutrients and their deficiency symptomsCopper, iron and molybdenum help enzymes that are involved in oxidation and reduction processes in plants. Copper is involved in the utilization of iron and in respiration. Iron is needed in the synthesis of proteins in the chloroplasts.


Role of micronutrients and their deficiency symptomsCopper, iron and molybdenum help enzymes that are involved in oxidation and reduction processes in plants. Copper is involved in the utilization of iron and in respiration. Iron is needed in the synthesis of proteins in the chloroplasts. Molybdenum is necessary for nitrogen fixation to take place by the help of symbiotic and non-biotic bacteria. It is also necessary for the synthesis of amino acids and proteins in plants. Boron is involved in the translocation of sugars in plants and in the absorption of water. Zinc is involved in the formation of some growth hormones and is also involved in the reproduction process of some plants. Inorganic Fertilizers. These are artificially processed compounds, which are added to the soil to improve its fertility. A. Classification of inorganic fertilizersThey are classified according to;Nutrients contained. -Straight containing only one macro-nutrient-Compound containing more than one macro-nutrient. Mode of application. Time of application. -Soil applied when planting-Top dressing after crop emergenceEffects on the soil pH. -Acidic-Neutral-Basic. I Straight fertilizerThey contain only one macro-nutrient which could be N, P or K. they are named according to the element contained. Nitrogenous fertilizers. They contain nitrogen as the primary macronutrient. They include Calcium Ammonium Nitrate CAN , Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate ASN Sulphate of Ammonia SA and Urea. Phosphatic fertilizers. Contain phosphorous. They include Single Super Phosphate SSP , DSP, and TSP. Potassic fertilizers. Contain potassium. They include Potassium Chloride or Murate of Potash KCl and Potassium Sulphate or Sulphate of Potash K2SO4 ii Compound or Mixed or Complex fertilizersThey contain two or more primary macronutrients. If it contains two of the primary macronutrients it is referred to as an incomplete compound fertilizer. Examples DAP 18:46:0 20-20-0 etc. If it contains the three N P K it is referred to as a complete compound fertilizer. Examples are 20-10-10, 25-5-5 5s, 17-17-17 and 15-15-15.


Examples DAP 18:46:0 20-20-0 etc. If it contains the three N P K it is referred to as a complete compound fertilizer. Examples are 20-10-10, 25-5-5 5s, 17-17-17 and 15-15-15. B. Properties and Identification of Fertilizersi Nitrogenous FertilizersThey have the following properties. Highly soluble in water. Most are highly corrosive and therefore should not be handled with bare hands. They also corrode metal surfaces such as iron and tin. Are highly volatile. Under hot conditions they change into gaseous form and escape into the atmosphere. They should therefore be applied to moist soils to avoid volatilization. They are hygroscopic and therefore absorb water from the atmosphere causing the granules to stick together or cake. They should therefore be stored under dry conditions. They are easily leached and should therefore be applied to already established crops. They have a scorching effect and should therefore not be brought into contact with any part of the plant. They have a short residual effect and should therefore be applied frequently. Properties of Individual Nitrogenous FertilizersSulphate of Ammonia NH4 2SO4. Physical appearance, white crystals, has acidic effect, contains 20-21 N. its highly volatile and slow acting. Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate ASN NH4NO3 NH4 2SO4. Its less acidic, granules appear yellow orange or brownish in colour, contains 26 N. its both quick and slow acting and highly corrosive. Calcium Ammonium Nitrate CAN NH4NO3 CaCO3. It s neutral in nature and highly hygroscopic. It has grayish granules and not corrosive. It contains 21 N. Urea CO NH2 2. Has 45-46 N. occurs as small whitish granules. It is easily leached or volatilized. It is rarely used except in crops with a high absorption capacity such as sugarcane. Ii Phosphatic FertilizersThey have the following properties. Has low solubility and immobile. However they may combine with ions of aluminium fixing phosphorous into unavailable forms to the plants.


Ii Phosphatic FertilizersThey have the following properties. Has low solubility and immobile. However they may combine with ions of aluminium fixing phosphorous into unavailable forms to the plants. They should therefore be place next to the roots so that plants can utilize them before phosphorous becomes fixed. Have a slight scorching effect and should be mixed thoroughly with the soil to minimize the scorching effect. Are not easily leached and therefore are applied during planting time. They have a residual effect and hence benefit subsequent crops. They are not very hygroscopic and therefore easy to store. Properties of Individual Phosphatic FertilizersSingle Super Phosphate SSP . It has 20-21 Phosphorous penta-oxide P2O5 . Induces negligible acidity and its water-soluble. It s in the form of white creamy granules. Double and Triple Super Phosphate DSP and TSP . They contain 43-52 P2O5 and occur in form of grayish granules smaller than those of CAN. It induces negligible acidity in the soil. Iii Potassic FertilizersCharacteristicsModerate scorching effectMore soluble in water than Phosphatic ones but less than nitrogenous ones. Most East African soils have adequate potassium and should therefore be applied only where soil test show its deficient. Properties of Individual Potassic FertilizersPotassium Chloride KCL . It is also referred to as Muriate of potash. It contains 50 K2O. It induces negligible acidity to the soil. It is hygroscopic. It occurs in the form of creamish or light coloured granules. Potassium Sulphate K2SO4 . It has 50 K2O. Reacting Muriate of potash with sulphuric acid makes it. It induces negligible acidity to the soil. It is also referred to as Sulphate of potash. Iv Compound or Mixed Fertilizers-Are made by mixing two or more straight fertilizers. Their nutrient content is expressed in two ways. Fertilizer grade. This indicates the guarantee of minimum content as a of N:P2O5:K2O in the fertilizer for example 10-20-0, 17-17-17 etc. Fertilizer ratio. This is the relative expressed as a ratio of the NPK present.


This indicates the guarantee of minimum content as a of N:P2O5:K2O in the fertilizer for example 10-20-0, 17-17-17 etc. Fertilizer ratio. This is the relative expressed as a ratio of the NPK present. For example, 10-20-0 will be 1:2:1 and 17:17:17 will be 1:1:1. Properties of Individual Compound FertilizersDiammonium Phosphate DAP NH4 2PO4 18; 46;0. It is moderately acidic because of the ammonium content. It is applied at planting time and contains both phosphorus and nitrogen. Nitrophos 20;20;0. Moderately acidic and contains both N and P. Monoammonium Phosphate MAP 11;48;0. Its moderately acidic and has same properties as DAP. Others 23;23;0, 17;17;17, 20;10;10 and 25-5-5 5SFertilizer ApplicationPhosphatic fertilizers are applied during planting time while nitrogenous ones are applied after crop emergence. In maize nitrogenous fertilizers are applied when the crop is 45-60cm or knee high. This application of fertilizers after the emergence of crops is referred to as top dressing. Methods of fertilizer applicationBroadcasting. This is the random scattering of fertilizers on the ground for plant use. This is applicable with the Potassic and nitrogenous fertilizers. Broadcasting should be done when the soil is moist. This is done manually or by the use of broadcasting machines. Shallow cultivation should be done after broadcasting to prevent loss through volatilization. Placement method. This is the application of the fertilizer in the planting holes or drills. The fertilizer should be thoroughly mixed with the soil before placing the seeds. This method is recommended when applying Phosphatic fertilizers. Side Dressing. This is the placement of nitrogenous fertilizer at the side of the crop being top-dressed. Side dressing can be done in two ways;Band application. Placement of fertilizer along a band in between the rows of growing crops. Ring application. This is the placement of fertilizer around the individual crop just beneath the edge of the canopy. Drip. The fertilizer is dissolved and applied to individual plants through perforated pipes or bottles.


Carbon occurs in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and constitutes 0.03 of air by volume. Ways in which carbon is removed from the atmospherePhotosynthesis. Green plants use CO2 from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. Carbon Dioxide water-----------Glucose OxygenThe glucose formed is used by plants to provide energy and the excess is stored in storage structures such as grains and tubers. As rainwater passes through the atmosphere, it reacts with carbon dioxide to from weak carbonic acid. This reduces the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. Ways in which Carbon is returned to the AtmosphereDecomposition. Once living organisms die, they decay releasing CO2 into the atmosphere. Respiration. During aerobic respiration oxygen is used to oxidize carbohydrates releasing energy, carbon dioxide and water. The Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere. Glucose Oxygen--------- Energy carbon waterDioxideCombustion. When carbon-containing materials such as wood and petroleum burn, carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. Importance of the carbon CycleMaintains the volume of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Ensures constant supply of CO2 for plant use. Ensures a balance between CO2 and O2 to prevent the buildup of CO2 to toxic levels. The Nitrogen CycleThese are the series of changes which nitrogen undergoes between the atmosphere, water, soil and living organisms. Nitrogen gas makes up to 78 of atmospheric air by volume; however it is not available to plants in this free gas form. Ways in which Nitrogen is removed from the atmosphereNitrogen fixation by lightning. Atmospheric nitrogen combines with oxygen to form nitric oxide during lightning. Nitric oxide is easily oxidized to form nitrogen dioxide as shown below. N2 O2 -------- 2NONitrogen Oxygen Nitric Oxide2NO O2----------2NO2Nitric oxide OxygenNitrogen DioxideThe nitrogen dioxide formed dissolves in water to form two acids, nitrous acid and nitric acid. 2NO2 H2O ------------ HNO2 HNO3Nitrogen water Nitrous acidNitric acidDioxideNitrous acid is a weak acid and is quickly oxidized to form nitric acid. 2HNO2 O2--------2HNO3Nitrous acidOxygenNitric acid.


N2 O2 -------- 2NONitrogen Oxygen Nitric Oxide2NO O2----------2NO2Nitric oxide OxygenNitrogen DioxideThe nitrogen dioxide formed dissolves in water to form two acids, nitrous acid and nitric acid. 2NO2 H2O ------------ HNO2 HNO3Nitrogen water Nitrous acidNitric acidDioxideNitrous acid is a weak acid and is quickly oxidized to form nitric acid. 2HNO2 O2--------2HNO3Nitrous acidOxygenNitric acid. In the soil nitric acid is ionized to form nitrate ions NO3 , which is now available to the plants. Nitrogen fixation by Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria. This is divided into symbiotic and non-symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Symbiotic fixation is carried out by Rhizobium bacteria found in the root nodules of legumes such as beans, peas, Lucerne, groundnuts etc. Free-living bacteria found in the soil carry out non-symbiotic nitrogen fixation. These bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates into the soil. Azotobacter and clostridium are good examples. N2---------------------------NO3 absorbed by plants . Nitrification. This is the process by which ammonium compounds are converted into nitrites and nitrates by the action of Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas bacteria. The Harber-Bosch Process. This results in the formation of ammonia. N2 3H2-----------2NH3Nitrogen HydrogenAmmoniaThe ammonia produced is reacted with sulphuric acid or nitric acid to produce Sulphate of ammonia and ammonium nitrate fertilizers respectively. Ammonium nitrate can then be mixed with calcium carbonate to produce CAN. Ways in which Nitrogen is returned to the AtmosphereDenitrification. This is the conversion of nitrate ions NO3- to nitrogen gas N2 and ammonium ions NH4- into ammonia gas NH3 , which escapes into the atmosphere. This is common in waterlogged soils and in very compacted soils. Denitrifying bacteria does this. Combustion. Burning vegetation causes the conversion of nitrogenous compounds into nitrogen dioxide and ammonia, which escapes into the atmosphere. Volatilisation.


Combustion. Burning vegetation causes the conversion of nitrogenous compounds into nitrogen dioxide and ammonia, which escapes into the atmosphere. Volatilisation. Sometimes ammonium compounds in the soil sublime to form ammonia gas, which escapes to the atmosphere. Importance of the Nitrogen cycleEnsures the availability of nitrogenous compounds in the soil for plant use. Ensures the survival of the anaerobic microorganisms such as clostridium, which use nitrogen gas. Soil samplingThis refers to obtaining a small quantity of soil that is representative in all aspects of the entire farm. Soil sampling methodsTraverse method. Four corners of the field are identified and sampling is done diagonally. Zigzag method. Locations are arranged in such a way that they are in a zigzag formSoil sampling ProcedureClear the vegetation over the site. Dig out the soil at depths of 15-25cm for crop-land and 5cm for pasture land. Place the dug out soil in clean container. Repeat the above steps in different parts of the field, preferably 15-20 spots. Mix thoroughly soil from all the spots. The soil is crushed and dried. Take a sub-sample composite sample from the mixture and send to National Agricultural Laboratory for analysis. The composite sample should have the following details before being taken to the laboratory;Name and address of the farmer. Field numberDate of sampling. Sites to avoid during the samplingDead furrows and ditchesNear manure heapsSwampsRecently fertilized soilsAnt hillsUnder big treesNear fence lines or footpathsBetween slopes and bottom-land. Soil TestingThis is the analyzing of the soil samples to determine the ability of the soil to supply the essential elements. Importance of soil testingTo determine the value of the soil hence determine the crop to grow. To determine the nutrient content hence find out the type of fertiliser to apply. To determine whether it is necessary to modify the soil pH for a crop. Soil pH potential hydrogen This refers to hydrogen ion H concentration in the soil. It is also referred to as the soil reaction. Soil pH measures the acidity or alkalinity of the soil solution. Soil acidity is caused by the H ions while soil alkalinity is caused by the hydroxyl ions OH- .


It is also referred to as the soil reaction. Soil pH measures the acidity or alkalinity of the soil solution. Soil acidity is caused by the H ions while soil alkalinity is caused by the hydroxyl ions OH- . The pH scale ranges from 1-14 with 7 being neutral; pH below 7 is acidic and pH above 7 is termed as basic or alkaline. These numbers are negative logarithms or powers. For example at pH 5 the amount of H concentration is 10-5. Most nutrients are available at neutral pH e.g. phosphates are available at pH 6.5-7.5. Low soil pH lowers the availability of phosphorous as phosphates become fixed by iron and aluminium. Molybdenum is also unavailable at low pH. Too high pH makes manganese, potassium, boron, iron and zinc less available. Testing Soil pHUse of the pH meter. Use of colour indicator dyes. Importance of Soil pH to CropsDetermines the type of crop to be grown in an area. For example, tea prefers acidic soils while barley is affected by low pH. Influences the incidences of soil borne pests. E.g. Pests such as nematodes are more serious in acidic soils than in neutral soils. It determines the availability or absence of nutrients. Influences the activity of soil microorganisms. E.g. low soil pH favours fungi and discourages bacteria. Therefore bacterial diseases such as potato scab caused by Aceptomyces scabies are common in high pH soils while fungal diseases such as club root caused by Plasmodiaphora brassicae are common in low pH soils. Influences the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil. REVISION QUESTIONS1.a Describe the production of tomatoes under the following sub headings.


Therefore bacterial diseases such as potato scab caused by Aceptomyces scabies are common in high pH soils while fungal diseases such as club root caused by Plasmodiaphora brassicae are common in low pH soils. Influences the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil. REVISION QUESTIONS1.a Describe the production of tomatoes under the following sub headings. I Ecological requirements 3mks ii Nursery establishment 4mks iii Planting 3mks iv Pest control 3mks v Disease control 3mks vi Marketing.4 mks2.Mention four categories of vegetables based on the part used as food. 4mks 3.a Describe the field production of Onions Aleum Cepa under the following sub topics;i Ecological requirements 3mks ii Varieties 2mks iii planting 4mks iv Field management practices 4mks v Harvesting 4mks b Name Three diseases of cabbages 3mks 4Name any 4 management practices done in carrot production. 4 mks 5.Describe the establishment of cabbage seedlings under the following sub-heading:- a Establishment of the nursery 7mks b Management of seedlings in the nursery 6mks c Transplanting of seedlings 7mks 6.Give four reasons for staking tomatoes 4mks 7.Give 4 effects of excess nitrogen in tomatoes. 4 mks 8.State 3 causes of blossom end rot in tomatoes. 3 mks 9.Give 4 reasons for staking in tomatoes. 4 mks 10Name 3 fresh market and 3 processing tomato varieties. 3 mks 11Name the early maturing cabbage varieties. 3mks 12.Why is it not advisable to apply manure in carrot production? 1 mk 13.Name the two main categories of carrots and give an example in each case. 2 mks MARKING SCHEMES1. A Production of tomatoesi Ecological requirements-Warm climate with a temp ranging 15 250C , 200C- 250C during day and 150C 170C at night.


4 mks 8.State 3 causes of blossom end rot in tomatoes. 3 mks 9.Give 4 reasons for staking in tomatoes. 4 mks 10Name 3 fresh market and 3 processing tomato varieties. 3 mks 11Name the early maturing cabbage varieties. 3mks 12.Why is it not advisable to apply manure in carrot production? 1 mk 13.Name the two main categories of carrots and give an example in each case. 2 mks MARKING SCHEMES1. A Production of tomatoesi Ecological requirements-Warm climate with a temp ranging 15 250C , 200C- 250C during day and 150C 170C at night. Altitude 0 2100m above sea level- Soil should be deep- Well drained- PH 5 7.5- Rainfall 760 1300 mm year p.a- Well distributed throughout the growing period 1 2mk for each correct answer x 6 3mks ii Nursery establishment and management. -The nursery should be sited on a gently sloping land. -A nursery of width 1m is prepared and soil raised to 15cm. -The bed should be prepared to a fine tilth-Planting furrows or drills are made at 10 15cm apart using a stick of pencil thickness. -Seeds are planted thinly along the furrows and covered lightly with the soil and firmed. -A light mulch cover is placed on the bed and watering done. 1mk each for any 4 points iii Planting-Planted at well prepared seedbed with deep soils free from weeds-Spacing 60cm x 60cm single row or 60cm x 60cm x 90 cm double row planting -200kg of DAP per hectare is used for planting-10 tons of farm yard compost manure per hectare-Nematocide should be applied on planting time to control nematodes. -Seedlings should be watered before transplanting-Transplant in the evening or during a cloudy day-Mulch the seedlings after transplanting mk for any 6 correct points iv Pest control.


-A light mulch cover is placed on the bed and watering done. 1mk each for any 4 points iii Planting-Planted at well prepared seedbed with deep soils free from weeds-Spacing 60cm x 60cm single row or 60cm x 60cm x 90 cm double row planting -200kg of DAP per hectare is used for planting-10 tons of farm yard compost manure per hectare-Nematocide should be applied on planting time to control nematodes. -Seedlings should be watered before transplanting-Transplant in the evening or during a cloudy day-Mulch the seedlings after transplanting mk for any 6 correct points iv Pest control. -cut wormAmerican bollworm 1mk -The adult moth lay eggs on young tomato fruits-When they hatch the larvae bore into the fruits and feed on themControl-Routine spraying of tomatoes with recommended pesticide eg. Karate, AmbushNematodes 1mk -Can be controlled by crop rotation-Fumigation of the soil using furadanv Disease controli Bacterial wilt 1mk for mention Control- Crop rotation-Uprooting and burning the affected plants 1mk each for any 2 correct points -Blossom end rot . 1mk for mention of any one disease Cause-Too much Nitrogen in the early stages of growth- Irregular watering- Calcium deficiencyControl- Regular watering- Apply sufficient amount of calcium add CAN - Top dressing with the right amount of Nitrogen 1mk each for any 2 e Marketing- Sort and grade them- Pack in wooden boxes- Sold to consumers directly- Sold to green grocers - Sold to canning factories- Fresh market tomatoes should have a reddish colour- For canning should be left to ripen2. Categories of vegetables based on the part used as flood.


Karate, AmbushNematodes 1mk -Can be controlled by crop rotation-Fumigation of the soil using furadanv Disease controli Bacterial wilt 1mk for mention Control- Crop rotation-Uprooting and burning the affected plants 1mk each for any 2 correct points -Blossom end rot . 1mk for mention of any one disease Cause-Too much Nitrogen in the early stages of growth- Irregular watering- Calcium deficiencyControl- Regular watering- Apply sufficient amount of calcium add CAN - Top dressing with the right amount of Nitrogen 1mk each for any 2 e Marketing- Sort and grade them- Pack in wooden boxes- Sold to consumers directly- Sold to green grocers - Sold to canning factories- Fresh market tomatoes should have a reddish colour- For canning should be left to ripen2. Categories of vegetables based on the part used as flood. -. Leaf vegetables- Root vegetables- Stem vegetables- Pod vegetables- Flower vegetables- Fruit vegetables3.a i Altitude 2,100m above the sea levelRainfall 1,000mm per yearfairly long period for ripeningirrigated during dry spellSoil fertile and well drained - Ph 6.0 7.0 3mks ii Varieties red creoleTropicana hybridWhite creole 2mks iii Planting Can be sown directly or started off in a nursery bed. 250kg Dsp used during plantingRows for direct planting should be 30cm apart. Seeds drilled and covered with light soil or transplanted at 8cm apart within the row. Deep planting should be avoided as it inhibits bulb expansion. 1x4 4mks iv - Thinning- Weeding- Top dressing- Pest and disease control 1x4 4mks v Harvesting- ready for harvesting after 5 months from planting. -. Tops broken or bent at the neck when leaves start drying. This hastens withering of the stem- bulbs are dug and left to dry in a shade of a few days.


1x4 4mks iv - Thinning- Weeding- Top dressing- Pest and disease control 1x4 4mks v Harvesting- ready for harvesting after 5 months from planting. -. Tops broken or bent at the neck when leaves start drying. This hastens withering of the stem- bulbs are dug and left to dry in a shade of a few days. Turning should be done daily during drying- dry onions should be stored in slatted wooden crates- regular inspection to discard spoilt ones should be done 1x4 4mks b - Damping off- black rot- downy mildew 1x3 3mks 4Thinning, weeding, topdressing and pest control. 5. A Choose a suitable nursery site, considering accessibility and source of waterDig and prepare the chosen site to a desirable tilthRemove roots of previous plants and stones from the siteMake raised or sunken nursery beds depending on soil moisture0 measuring 1m wide and any convenient lengthPlant seeds by drilling at a spacing of 15cm by 3cm deepApply fertilizer phosphatic or manureCover the seeds to a depth of about 1 cmErect a shade or apply some mulch on the nurseryWater the nursery thoroughly. 7 well described pts 7mks b Remove the mulch if it was applied and erect shade if it wasn t erected above the nurseryWater the nursery at least twice a day preferably early mornings and late eveningsRemove weeds that may have come upThin young seedlings if they are overcrowded.


This hastens withering of the stem- bulbs are dug and left to dry in a shade of a few days. Turning should be done daily during drying- dry onions should be stored in slatted wooden crates- regular inspection to discard spoilt ones should be done 1x4 4mks b - Damping off- black rot- downy mildew 1x3 3mks 4Thinning, weeding, topdressing and pest control. 5. A Choose a suitable nursery site, considering accessibility and source of waterDig and prepare the chosen site to a desirable tilthRemove roots of previous plants and stones from the siteMake raised or sunken nursery beds depending on soil moisture0 measuring 1m wide and any convenient lengthPlant seeds by drilling at a spacing of 15cm by 3cm deepApply fertilizer phosphatic or manureCover the seeds to a depth of about 1 cmErect a shade or apply some mulch on the nurseryWater the nursery thoroughly. 7 well described pts 7mks b Remove the mulch if it was applied and erect shade if it wasn t erected above the nurseryWater the nursery at least twice a day preferably early mornings and late eveningsRemove weeds that may have come upThin young seedlings if they are overcrowded. Plant them in a seedling bedControl pests and diseases when the symptoms of attack are noticedHarden off the seedlings by removing shade gradually and reducing frequency of watering 6 pts well described 6mks c Water the nursery thoroughly before transplantingPrepare the field seedbed to a suitable tilth before transplanting is dueTransplant seedlings when 6 10cm high; selecting the healthy and discarding the weak onesTransplant during cloudy day or during late afternoonPlant seedlings in the field to the same depth 10cm they were in the nursery space at 60cm x 60cm or 60cm x 90cmLift each seedling from nursery with a ball lump of soil to avoid damage to the rootsWater the field well before it receives the seedlingsApply a handful of FYM mixed with some phosphatic fertilizer in each hole Well described 7 pts scores 7mks 6.


Turning should be done daily during drying- dry onions should be stored in slatted wooden crates- regular inspection to discard spoilt ones should be done 1x4 4mks b - Damping off- black rot- downy mildew 1x3 3mks 4Thinning, weeding, topdressing and pest control. 5. A Choose a suitable nursery site, considering accessibility and source of waterDig and prepare the chosen site to a desirable tilthRemove roots of previous plants and stones from the siteMake raised or sunken nursery beds depending on soil moisture0 measuring 1m wide and any convenient lengthPlant seeds by drilling at a spacing of 15cm by 3cm deepApply fertilizer phosphatic or manureCover the seeds to a depth of about 1 cmErect a shade or apply some mulch on the nurseryWater the nursery thoroughly. 7 well described pts 7mks b Remove the mulch if it was applied and erect shade if it wasn t erected above the nurseryWater the nursery at least twice a day preferably early mornings and late eveningsRemove weeds that may have come upThin young seedlings if they are overcrowded. Plant them in a seedling bedControl pests and diseases when the symptoms of attack are noticedHarden off the seedlings by removing shade gradually and reducing frequency of watering 6 pts well described 6mks c Water the nursery thoroughly before transplantingPrepare the field seedbed to a suitable tilth before transplanting is dueTransplant seedlings when 6 10cm high; selecting the healthy and discarding the weak onesTransplant during cloudy day or during late afternoonPlant seedlings in the field to the same depth 10cm they were in the nursery space at 60cm x 60cm or 60cm x 90cmLift each seedling from nursery with a ball lump of soil to avoid damage to the rootsWater the field well before it receives the seedlingsApply a handful of FYM mixed with some phosphatic fertilizer in each hole Well described 7 pts scores 7mks 6. Prevent attack by soil borne pestsFacilitate spraying and harvestingControl soil borne diseasesFor the production of clean fruits 1x4 4mks 7.Prolonged maturity; cracking of fruits b4 maturity; blossom end rot; excess vegetative growth.


5. A Choose a suitable nursery site, considering accessibility and source of waterDig and prepare the chosen site to a desirable tilthRemove roots of previous plants and stones from the siteMake raised or sunken nursery beds depending on soil moisture0 measuring 1m wide and any convenient lengthPlant seeds by drilling at a spacing of 15cm by 3cm deepApply fertilizer phosphatic or manureCover the seeds to a depth of about 1 cmErect a shade or apply some mulch on the nurseryWater the nursery thoroughly. 7 well described pts 7mks b Remove the mulch if it was applied and erect shade if it wasn t erected above the nurseryWater the nursery at least twice a day preferably early mornings and late eveningsRemove weeds that may have come upThin young seedlings if they are overcrowded. Plant them in a seedling bedControl pests and diseases when the symptoms of attack are noticedHarden off the seedlings by removing shade gradually and reducing frequency of watering 6 pts well described 6mks c Water the nursery thoroughly before transplantingPrepare the field seedbed to a suitable tilth before transplanting is dueTransplant seedlings when 6 10cm high; selecting the healthy and discarding the weak onesTransplant during cloudy day or during late afternoonPlant seedlings in the field to the same depth 10cm they were in the nursery space at 60cm x 60cm or 60cm x 90cmLift each seedling from nursery with a ball lump of soil to avoid damage to the rootsWater the field well before it receives the seedlingsApply a handful of FYM mixed with some phosphatic fertilizer in each hole Well described 7 pts scores 7mks 6. Prevent attack by soil borne pestsFacilitate spraying and harvestingControl soil borne diseasesFor the production of clean fruits 1x4 4mks 7.Prolonged maturity; cracking of fruits b4 maturity; blossom end rot; excess vegetative growth. 8.Too much nitrogen in early stage; irregular watering; calcium deficiency in young fruits. 9Production of clean fruits; facilitate spraying and harvesting; avoid infestation by soil borne pests; control disease incidences such as blight.


Prevent attack by soil borne pestsFacilitate spraying and harvestingControl soil borne diseasesFor the production of clean fruits 1x4 4mks 7.Prolonged maturity; cracking of fruits b4 maturity; blossom end rot; excess vegetative growth. 8.Too much nitrogen in early stage; irregular watering; calcium deficiency in young fruits. 9Production of clean fruits; facilitate spraying and harvesting; avoid infestation by soil borne pests; control disease incidences such as blight. 10Fresh market money maker, hot set, super marmande, ponde rosa, marglobe. Processing primabel, cal J, seinz, Kenya beauty. 11.Brunswick, sugar loaf, early jersey, mukuki, Copenhagen market, golden acres, Gloria etc. 12.Encourages forking. 13.-Fresh market chantenary-Canning - NantesFORM THREE AGRICULTURE NOTESCROP PRODUCTION IV FIELD PRACTICES II There are many food crops grown in Kenya. These crops require different environmental conditions and are therefore found in different ecological zones in the country. Crops such as maize, beans and rice are grown as staple food crops. Other like millet, sorghum, cassava and sweet potatoes are mostly grown for food security. Examples of food crops grown in KenyaMAIZE Zea Mays -It is the staple food in most areas in Kenya. Maize is also a livestock food and produces oil and starch when processed in industries. Ecological RequirementsAltitude-2200m above sea levelTemperature-mediumRainfall-mediumMaize is drought tolerant during the early stages of growth but must have enough rain during silking stage. Soil-maize prefers fertile alluvial or loam soils since maize cannot tolerate water logging. Soil pH should be neutral to alkaline. Maize VarietiesFew pure varieties exist because farmers tend to grow the Hybrids and Composites, which are more productive. The Kenya Flat Complex is an example of the few pure varieties. It is however low yielding. Hybrids are bred by crossing two pure lines or varieties under conditions of controlled pollination. Composites are bred by growing a number of varieties together under uncontrolled pollination i.e. there is free inter pollination. The hybrids and composites are produced for specific altitudes in the country. E.g.


There is free inter pollination. The hybrids and composites are produced for specific altitudes in the country. E.g. Kitale Hybrids-614, 622, 625, 626, 627 and 628 are grown in medium to high altitude zones. Embu Hybrids-511 513 are best for medium altitude zones. Katumani Composites- for lower altitude zonesCoast Hybrids- Pwani Hybrid 1and Pwani Hybrid 4 for Coast Province. Others Double cob DH01 DH02Selection and preparation of planting materialsKenya Seed Company contracts specific farmers to grow maize for seeds. The maize is harvested and treated using Thiram-dindane to prevent post attack. Its then sold to farmers as seeds. Farmers should buy fresh seeds every planting season to escape the problem of reduced hybrid vigor. Land PreparationLand should be prepared early to allow the previous crop incorporated into the soil to rot. Disc or mould board ploughs are used to plough. Harrowing is done to obtain a fine tilth. Continuous cropping of maize should be avoided. It should be rotated with other crops such as beans, cotton, tobacco, Irish potatoes or groundnuts. Field Operationsa Planting-Should be done early so that the crop can utilize the available moisture. Dry planting should be practiced in areas with short rainy seasons. Early planting increases yields and reduces attack by stalk borers. Seeds are planted shallowly in moist soils-2.5cm and deeply in dry soils-10cm. Spacing is 20-30cm x 75-90cm where one or two seeds are placed per hole. However, spacing depends on the ecological conditions and the variety to be planted. Small-scale farmers use hands to plant while tractor drawn planters are used on large scale. B Fertilizer Application. 100-150kg or DSP or DAP per hectare is applied during planting. Top dressing is done when the crop is about 45cm high where 200kg of ASN or CAN is applied per hectare. Top dressing can be done twice i.e. first when 45cm high and second one just before selling. C Weed Control. Weeds should be controlled to reduce competition for moisture and nutrients. Two to three weeding are required during the growing period of the crop. Hand weeding is the commonest herbicides can also be used e.g.


-Proper drying of the grains reduces chances of the grains rotting and minimizes the extent of insect damage. Marketing-Farmers sell their maize grains through the National Cereals and Produce Board. -Local trading in green and dry maize is also common. II FINGER MILLET Eleusine coranaca Finger millet has small seeds which dry out quickly and insects cannot fit inside them. It s an important cereal crop in Western Kenya and Uganda. Ecological Requirements-Rainfall-about 900mm annually. Millet can tolerate drought in the early stages of growth but after the first month it requires a good supply of moisture. -Altitude-0-2400m above sea level. -Soils-should be fertile and well drained. Varieties-Ultra lupin-5.18 OATS. Both are high yielding and resistant to lodging and blast. Selection and Preparation of Planting Materials-Harvested grains are sun dried, threshed, winnowed and then stored for use as seeds-Certified seeds can also be bought from the Kenya seed Company. Land Preparation-Seedbed should be thoroughly prepared to obtain a fine tilth since the seeds are very tiny. -Weed control is also very difficult in millet hence thorough seedbed preparation reduces weed competition. Field Operationsa Planting-Should be done as early as possible in the season. The earlier it is sown the higher the yields. -Planting is usually done broadcasting hand. -If planted by rows, the furrows should be 30cm apart and the plants should be thinned to 5 cm apart within the rows. B Weed Control. -This is done manually because finger millet is very close and jembe cannot be used. -Thorough seedbed preparation reduces the labour required for weeding-The most common weeds are the Eleusine africana and Eleusine indica wild finger millet . They are difficult to distinguish from the crop in the early stages of growth. C Fertiliser application. -125kg of Sulphate of Ammonia is applied when the crop is 15cm high. D Pest and Disease Controli Pests-Finger millet is rarely destroyed by pests in the store because of the small size of the grains. -Major pests in the field are the birds and are controlled by scaring them.


-125kg of Sulphate of Ammonia is applied when the crop is 15cm high. D Pest and Disease Controli Pests-Finger millet is rarely destroyed by pests in the store because of the small size of the grains. -Major pests in the field are the birds and are controlled by scaring them. Ii Diseases-Most serious disease is the head blast caused by a fungus called Pericularia oryzae-The disease is common under hot and humid conditions e.g. in Western Kenya. -The disease cause brown spots with grey centres on the leaves and the stems just below the inflorescence. Control-Planting resistant varieties. Harvesting-Hand knives are used for cutting individual heads. Heads are then dried, threshed and winnowed. Yields-1650kg hectare can be obtained with good management practices. Storage and Marketing-Grains are dried and stored in bags. -Mainly it s grown for subsistence and only a little is sold in local markets. III BULRUSH MILLET Pennisetum typhoides It s one of the small cereal crops cultivated in lower parts of Meru, Kirinyaga and Embu districts. Also cultivated in Kerio valley and parts of Machakos. Ecological RequirementsRainfall-500-600mm p.a. Bulrush millet is drought resistant and takes a short time to mature. Altitude-1200m above sea level hence warm climate. Soils-should be well drained. VarietiesSevere 26 19, 17, 26 9, 6A, 2A and 3A. Land PreparationLand should be prepared early to give the soil enough time to settle and form a firm seedbed. A fine seedbed is required since the seeds are tiny. Field Operationsa Planting-Planting is commonly done by broadcasting followed by a shallow cultivation before the onset of the rains. -Spacing should be 60cm x 15cm where rows are used. B WeedingThe field should be maintained weed free until tillering occurs. Hand weeding is commonly done. C Fertiliser Application. Sulphate of Ammonia can be applied at the rate of 200kg hectare when the crop is 30cm high.


-Use of insecticides. -Proper disposal of crop residue remains after harvesting. B DiseasesSorghum is attacked by both leaf and inflorescence diseases. Examples of leaf diseases-Leaf blight Helminthosporium turcicum. -Anthracnose Colletotricum graminicola -Sooty stripe Ramulispora sorghi General control-Growing resistant varieties. Examples of inflorescence diseasesLoose smut Sphacelotheca cruenta Head smut Sphacelotheca reiliana General controlSeed dressing. Harvesting-Sorghum is ready for harvesting 3-4 months after planting. -Heads are cut off using a sharp knife after which they are sun dried. -Dried sorghum is then threshed, winnowed and stored. Yields-500-1500kg hectare and up to 3000kg under good husbandry. -Sorghum can be rattooned for one or two seasons. Marketing-Crop is marketed through the National Cereals and Produce Board. -Private buyers also purchase sorghum directly from farmers. V BEANS Phaseolus vulgaris -Are used to provide with proteins. They are grown for the dry seeds or for the green pods. Beans can be intercropped with other crops like maize and cassava. -Beans are annual legumes with varying growth habits. E.g. some varieties are determinate bush type non-spreading and others are indeterminate type spreading type -Beans are about 99 self-pollinated. Ecological RequirementsSoil-Should be well drained and rich in organic manure. Beans do not tolerate waterlogged soils. -The soil should be moist. Rainfall-Should be moderate. Heavy rainfall is destructive at the flowering stage. Rain should be present during harvesting time, as this would cause rotting and sprouting of the beans. Beans for green pods are produced under irrigation. Varieties-Varieties for production of dry bean seedsRose coco, GLP 2 Mwezi moja GLP 1004 Canadian wonder GLP 24 K 74WairimuMexican 142 developed in Tanzania. It is suitable for canning, drought resistant, rust resistant, early maturing and high yielding.


Beans for green pods are produced under irrigation. Varieties-Varieties for production of dry bean seedsRose coco, GLP 2 Mwezi moja GLP 1004 Canadian wonder GLP 24 K 74WairimuMexican 142 developed in Tanzania. It is suitable for canning, drought resistant, rust resistant, early maturing and high yielding. -Varieties for green pods production. French Beans Long tomSaxaMaster pieceMonel. Selection and Preparation of Planting Materials-Beans are established from seeds. The seeds should be dried before they are planted. Damaged and wrinkled seeds should be discarded during seed selection. Selected seeds should be dressed with appropriate chemicals to control soil borne pests. Seeds should be inoculated with the right strain of Rhizobium. Field OperationsPlanting-Beans should be planted at the onset of rains. 2-3 seeds are placed per hole at a spacing of 30cm x 15cm. DAP fertilizer should be applied at a rate of 200kg hectare along the furrows before planting. The seed rate is 50-60kg ha. B Weeding-The field should be kept weed free by shallow weeding. Weeding should be done before flowering to avoid knocking down the flowers. Weeding is done when it is dry to avoid spreading diseases. C Irrigation. -Beans for green pod production are grown during the dry months. They therefore need about 50mm of water per week. This is supplied through overhead irrigation or furrow system of irrigation. D Pest and Disease control. I Pests-They include aphids, American bollworm, bean fly, spotted borer, golden ring moth etc. ControlSpraying with insecticides such as Dieldrin, Dimethoate, Diazinon, and Formathion etc. Ii Diseases. -They include Bean rust, Anthracnose, Halo blight and angular leaf spot. Bacterial Halo blight. Caused by a bacteria called Pseudomonas phaseolicolaDisease causes brown water soaked lesions on the pods. Each brown spot is surrounded by a yellow band or halo . The disease is seed borne and can be spread by rain, which could splash the bacteria on to the healthy plant parts. Control-Planting healthy seeds.


Each brown spot is surrounded by a yellow band or halo . The disease is seed borne and can be spread by rain, which could splash the bacteria on to the healthy plant parts. Control-Planting healthy seeds. -Rogueing-Crop rotation-Spraying with copper oxychloride. Anthracnose. Disease is caused by a fungus called Colletotricum lindemuthianum. It causes brown lesions on pods and stems and brown spots on leaves. Control-Growing resistant varieties e.g. K74 and Wairimu. -Use of clean seeds. -Seed dressing with Captan-destroying infected crop residues. -Spraying with Benomyl, Copper fungicide or Mancozeb during the wet season. HarvestingBeans for seeds are harvested by uprooting the dry plants. Uprooted beans are gathered on tarpaulins canvas, mats or sacks to allow them to dry further before threshing. When the plants are dry enough, they are beaten with sticks to remove the seeds from the pods. The stems and the pods are removed before winnowing. Sorting should be done after winnowing to remove damaged seeds. Dry clean seeds are treated with appropriate pesticide and packed in bags. Marketing-Is done through NCPBYields-2600kg ha under good managementFor the green beans French beans , harvesting of the pods starts about 9 weeks after planting and continues for about two months. Pods should be packed immediately after picking to avoid shrivelling. Yields-4-5 tones ha under good management. RICE Oryza sativa -Rice is a cereal crop and is used as a staple food in some parts of Kenya. -It is grown at Mwea Tebere irrigation schemes in Kirinyaga district, Ahero irrigation scheme in Nyando district and Bura irrigation scheme in Tana River district and Yala swamp in Siaya district. -Mwea is the largest rice-growing project in Kenya with over 5,600 hectares. Land Preparation-Rice growing fields are levelled and bunds constructed around them for controlling water. -Tractor drawn rotavators are used to work the flooded fields before transplanting. Field OperationsWater control. The level of water is increased from the very low level of about 5cm at planting time gradually to a height of 15cm by the time the seedlings are fully grown.


-Tractor drawn rotavators are used to work the flooded fields before transplanting. Field OperationsWater control. The level of water is increased from the very low level of about 5cm at planting time gradually to a height of 15cm by the time the seedlings are fully grown. Water should be allowed to flow slowly through the fields. Fertilizer ApplicationSulphate of Ammonia should be applied at a rate of 25kg per each nursery unit measuring 18.5cm x 18.5cm before sowing. DSP fertilizer is broadcasted in the field at a rate of 125kg ha before transplanting and 125kg ha 40 days after transplanting. Weed Control. Flooding easily controls weeds. Uprooting can be done on the few weeds that persist. Herbicides can be used e.g. Butachlor and Propanil. HARVESTING OF VARIOUS INDUSTRIAL CROPSFORAGE CROPSThese are plants, which grow naturally or are planted by man and are used as livestock feed. PASTURESA pasture is the land on which the forage crops are grazed on directly. Aspects of pasturePasture classificationPasture establishmentPasture managementPasture utilization. PASTURE CLASSIFICATIONPasture can be classified in three main ways. According to the pasture standAccording to pasture establishmentAccording to the Ecological zones. I Classification on Basis of Pasture Stands. The pasture may be either pure stand or mixed stand. Pure stand pastures have either grass or legumes on them. In mixed pastures, grasses and legumes are grown together. Ii Classification based on Establishment. Under this category, pastures are classified as Natural and Artificial. Natural pastures. These are grasses and legumes grow naturally and extensively for both domestic and wild animals. Over 80 of Kenyan pastures are natural. They are mainly mixed stand pastures. Artificial pastures. These are pasture grasses and legumes planted by man purposely for livestock feeds. Mostly they are of high quality. Iii Classification on the basis of Altitude zones Under this category, pastures can be classified as:High altitude pastures grasses legumes Medium altitude pasturesLow altitude pastures. High Altitude PasturesThey are found at high altitudes of 25500m above sea level and above.


Green leaf desmodiumDesmodium intortum. SiratroMacroptilium atropurpureumStyloStylosanthes guiyanensisLow Altitude PasturesThese are pastures found in marginal areas of Kenya below 1500m above sea level which receive little rainfall. In such areas, indigenous livestock such as camels, donkeys, cattle, sheep and goats are kept. Examples of grass pastures in this zone include:Common Name Botanical NameAfrican fox tail Cenchrus ciliarisMaasai love grass Eragrostis superbaLikoni guinea Panicum maximumMakarikari grass Panicum coloratumRed oat grass Themeda triandraHyparrhenia thatch grass Hyparrhenia rufaGiant star grass Cynodon plectostadynsBothriochloa Bothriochloa insulpaPara grass Branchiaria muticaAndropogon Andropogon sppCymbogon Digitaria decumbeusExamples of legumes found in this zone. Common Name Botanical NameStylo Stylosanthes searbraGlycine Glycine wightiiCentroCenrosema pubescensOTHER PASTURE CROPSWeed GrassesCommon NameBotanical NameCouch grassDigitaria scalarumNut sedgesCyperus speciesSporobolusSporobolus spp. Fodder shrubsLeucaeniaLeucaenia leucocephalaAtriplexAtriplex spp. PASTURE ESTABLISHMENTPasture can be established by use of seeds, rhizomes or splits. I Selection of Planting Materials. Planting materials selected should be;Of high nutritive value. Adapted to the prevailing environmental conditions. Fast growing in order to give a good ground cover which will help to control soil erosion. Able to give high herbage yield per unit area. Ii Land Preparation. Land should be ploughed and harrowed to a fine tilth. Land preparation should be done during the dry season before the onset of the rains. Iii Seed RatesRecommended seed rate for pasture grasses is 1.5-2.0kg ha of pure germinating seeds. The seeds are produced by Kenya Seed Company.


Land preparation should be done during the dry season before the onset of the rains. Iii Seed RatesRecommended seed rate for pasture grasses is 1.5-2.0kg ha of pure germinating seeds. The seeds are produced by Kenya Seed Company. And are sold in two lotsHigh quality seeds with 13-25 pure germinating seeds. PGS Standard quality seeds with 12.5 PGS. Legume seed rate depends on the seed size i.e. 2-3kg ha for medium sized seeds e.g. Desmodium and Lucerne and 2kg ha for tiny seeds e.g. clovers. Iv Fertilizer Application. SSP fertilizer is applied at a rate of 200kg ha for grasses and legume mixturesFor pure grasses, NPK 20:20:0 at a rate of 200kg ha is recommended. V Legume Seed InoculationThis is the addition of effective Rhizobia to leguminous seeds before planting to promote nitrogen fixation. This is done in areas where soil is deficient of nitrogen. Some Rhizobia strains are naturally found in the soil at pH 5.5-8.0 with adequate calcium, phosphorous, potassium and rainfall. Examples of Rhizobium strains. CropRhizobium SpeciesLucerneRhizobium meliotiCloversRhizobium trifoliBeansRhizobium phaseoli. Vi Sowing. Since most seeds are small, they should be covered lightly after broadcasting. The following are the methods of sowing. Direct sowingUnder sowingOver sowing. Direct Sowing. This is the establishment the pasture in a clean seed bed where no other crops are growingUnder Sowing This is the establishment of a pasture under a cover crop usually maize. Maize is planted and weeded 2-3 weeks after the onset of the rains. Pasture seeds are broadcasted with the recommended amount of fertilizer. No further weeding is done Maize is harvested early to expose the young seedlings to sunlight. Over Sowing This is the establishment of a pasture legume in an existing grass pasture. The grass pasture is kept short until the pasture legume is well established. SSP fertilizer is applied at the rate of 200kg-400kg ha.


Over Sowing This is the establishment of a pasture legume in an existing grass pasture. The grass pasture is kept short until the pasture legume is well established. SSP fertilizer is applied at the rate of 200kg-400kg ha. The mixed stand pasture should be ready for light grazing 4-5 months after planting. MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES. I WeedingWeeds should be controlled as they cause the following;Reduce the lifespan of pastures. Compete with forage crops for nutrients, moisture and sunlight. Reduce the quality of the Herbage yield. Some may be poisonous to the animals e.g. Datura. They interfere with forage fertilization. Weed Control measures on pasturesTimely land preparation which ensures clean seedbed with less subsequent weed problem. Slashing. Application of selective herbicides e.g. 2,4-D. Uprooting the weeds if scattered. Ii Top Dressing. This is the application of plant nutrients after the pasture has established for the following reasons. To add replenish soil nutrients and ensure proper nutrient balance. To increase the herbage yieldTo improve the nutrient value of the crop. To enable the soil micro organisms to breakdown organic residues into available nutrientsTo correct or amend both physical and chemical properties such as soil structure and moisture holding capacity. N B The choice of topdressing fertilizer depends on the crop and soil nutrient status. -Inorganic fertilizers are better for top dressing materials than organic manures because they release their nutrients faster. -Pure grass pastures require large amounts of nitrogen and potassium. -Grass-legume pastures require phosphorous, potassium, calcium and sulphur for nitrogen fixation. Iii Topping. -This is the removal of the stemmy fibrous material left over after a period of pasture grazing. -The removal of such material stimulates fresh growth. -Topping should be done at the onset of the rains and should be followed by topdressing. -Topping is done through slashing, mowing or burning. Iv Reseeding. This is also called gapping and it s done when pasture is partially denuded or bare. Refilling the gaps does it. V Controlled Grazing. Some pastures are seriously affected by heavy grazing such that herbage production is low. Grazing has therefore to be controlled through tethering, strip grazing or paddocking. Vi Pest ControlJust like any other crop in the farm, pasture crops are also attacked by pests.


Some pastures are seriously affected by heavy grazing such that herbage production is low. Grazing has therefore to be controlled through tethering, strip grazing or paddocking. Vi Pest ControlJust like any other crop in the farm, pasture crops are also attacked by pests. The most common pest is the mole which makes underground tunnels destroying roots of pasture crops hence killing them. These are controlled byUse of cats Biological method Rodenticides Chemical control Traps Physical mechanical method D PASTURE UTILIZATIONFORAGE QUALITYThe quality of forage declines with age. I.e. there is gradual decline in the amount of soluble sugars, starch, proteins, organic matter and digestibility with age. Crude fibre is not digestible in the normal enzymatic process but only through the activities of microbes in the rumen. Frequency of Defoliation. Defoliation refers to grazing in pastures and cutting for feed in fodder crops. Frequency of defoliation therefore refers to how often the forage stand is grazed or cut for feed. It s important to determine the proper defoliation frequency for a particular forage. Effects of Very Early Defoliation Less than Four weeks. The forage has very high moisture content 90 The forage has very high protein content on weight basis. Has very low Dry Matter content hence very low DM yield. It has high DM digestibility but low in digestible nutrients. Has low crude protein yield. Frequent early defoliation leads to a gradual weakening of the stand followed by empty patches, weed invasion and an eventual reduction in the productive life of the stand. Effects of Late Defoliation. More than Ten weekThe forage has high DM content hence high DM yieldHas high cellulose content hence it s woody and fibrous. It has high lignin, cutin, tannin and silica content which are all insoluble. It has low crude protein content. It has low leaf: ratioIt has low dry matter digestibilityNB during grazing, it s necessary to do paddocking for the following reasons. To control grazing and ensure sufficient re-growth before grazing is resumed. To ensure better forage utilization and less wastage by trampling, fouling and selective grazing. To facilitate conservation of excess pasture in form of hay or standing forage. To maintain a favourable grass-legume balance where applicable.


To ensure better forage utilization and less wastage by trampling, fouling and selective grazing. To facilitate conservation of excess pasture in form of hay or standing forage. To maintain a favourable grass-legume balance where applicable. Carrying Capacity and Stocking RateCarrying capacity is the ability of the forage stand to maintain a particular number of livestock units per unit area. This depends on the herbage yield and the animals daily requirements. Stocking rate refers to the number of the animals maintained per unit area of land. In order to determine the carrying capacity and the proper stocking rate for a particular forage stand, dry matter DM yields per unit area per unit time and live weight of the animals to be fed are considered. ExampleA dairy animal consumes 2.5kg dry matter for every 100kg body weight per day. The amount consumed by a jersey weighing 400kg live weight per year would be2.5X 400 100 X 365 1000 3.65 tons DMA Guernsey weighing 450kg would consume2.5 X 450 100 X 365 1000 4.1 tons DMLikewise, an Ayrshire weighing 500kg live weight would consume,X 500 100 X 365 1000 4.65 tons DM. NB when the stocking rate is above the carrying capacity of the pasture, it is referred to as overstocking. And when it is below the carrying capacity it is referred to as under stocking. Some Recommended Stocking Rates on Different PasturesEffects of overstockingInsufficient regrowth period for the forage hence effects similar to those of very early defoliation. Overgrazing and loss of soil cover leading to soil erosion. Invasion of undesirable plant species especially weeds and shrubs. Intensity of defoliationThis refers to proportion of the herbage removed through grazing and that of the residual forage. Pastures should be grazed until about 70 of the aerial herbage is eaten up i.e. about 5cm is left. GRAZING SYSTEMSThere are three main grazing systemsRotational grazingContinuous grazingZero grazing1 Rotational GrazingThis refers to practice of allowing livestock to feed on a part of pasture for a period down to certain level before they are moved to the next. This gives time for pasture to properly regenerate.


About 5cm is left. GRAZING SYSTEMSThere are three main grazing systemsRotational grazingContinuous grazingZero grazing1 Rotational GrazingThis refers to practice of allowing livestock to feed on a part of pasture for a period down to certain level before they are moved to the next. This gives time for pasture to properly regenerate. Advantages of Rotational GrazingLivestock make maximum use of pastureReduces the buildup of parasites and diseases. Animal waste is distributed evenly in all fields paddocks. Pasture area is given time to re-grow before its grazed on again. Excess pasture can be harvested for conservationIts possible to apply fertilizers in parts of the pastures are not in useIt facilitates reseeding and weeding. The methods of rotational grazing include paddocking, strip grazing and tethering. A PaddockingA paddock is a fenced portion of a pasture in which animals are restricted for grazing. Paddocking means grazing livestock in one paddock for a short period and then moving to another. The size of the paddocks depends on the carrying capacity of the pasture. There should be a watering point at each paddock. A water trough is placed between two paddocks so that animals can drink water from either paddock. Paddocking saves herding labour. However, it is very expensive to construct. B Strip Grazing-This is done by allowing livestock to graze on restricted portion of the pasture at a time then moving them to the next. -It s done on very high quality pastures. Electric fences can be used to enclose animals in a given strip of pasture. -Where animals are not many herding may be done to restrict them to stay within the strips. Temporary fences may also be used instead of the electric fences. -However, the system is quite expensive. C Tethering. -This involves tying the animal to a post with a rope such that it feeds within a restricted area. -The rope may also have a metal ring that slides along a strong wire supported by strong poles. 2 Continuous Grazing Herding In this type of grazing, the pasture is not allowed any resting period. This method can easily result in overgrazing if the stocking rate is not controlled. It s common in the semi-arid areas.


2 Continuous Grazing Herding In this type of grazing, the pasture is not allowed any resting period. This method can easily result in overgrazing if the stocking rate is not controlled. It s common in the semi-arid areas. 3 Zero Grazing Stall Feeding -This is the practice of rearing animals in a permanent feeding enclosure known as the stall. Feed is cut and taken to the animals in the stalls. -They are also provided with plenty of clean water and mineral licks. AdvantagesThere is quick accumulation of manureAnimals make use of the feeds without wastageAnimals produce high yields due to less wastage of energy. It s easy to control diseases and parasitesIt requires little landIt allows higher stocking rateDisadvantagesHigh initial capital is requiredHigh management skills are neededNeed a lot of labourDiseases can easily spread. FODDER CROPS-These are forage crops which are grown, allowed to mature the cut and given to livestock as feed. Animals are not allowed to graze on them directly because they easily degenerate. -The fodder can also be conserved and sold if produced on large scale. -They include; Napier grass, Guatemala grass, Sorghum, Columbus grass, Sudan grass, Edible Cana, Kales, Kenya white clover, Marigolds Sugar beets , Lucerne, Desmodium and Agro-forestry trees and shrubs. 1.NAPIER GRASS. Penisetum purpereum There are two main varieties of Napier grass i.e. The French Cameroon and Bana Grass. French CameroonIt has thin stems and less hairyBana GrassHas thick stems and its hairy. A Ecological requirements. I Soils-Should be well drained though it does well in a variety of soils. Ii Rainfall- 750 mm p.a which should be well distributed. Iii Altitude. -Preferably 2100m above sea level. Iv Temperature-Optimum 24oC -29oCb Establishment and managementi Land preparation. Should be done early during the dry season. Furrows are made at a spacing of 90-100cm. Alternatively; holes can be dug at a spacing of 90cm x 50cm. 7-10 tons of well decomposed organic manure is applied.


Furrows are made at a spacing of 90-100cm. Alternatively; holes can be dug at a spacing of 90cm x 50cm. 7-10 tons of well decomposed organic manure is applied. Ii Planting. Planting materials should be selected from desirable varieties of napier grass. Materials should come from healthy and mature plants. Stem cuttings or splits are used. Stem cuttings should have 2-3 nodes. -Stem cuttings should be placed in the furrows in a slopping manner. -NPK 20:20:0: should be applied at rate of 200kg ha. Iii Fertilizer applicationTopdressing with nitrogen and potassium fertilizers should be done about 6-8 weeks after planting. Iv Weed Control. Weeds should be removed as early as possible during the early stages of development. Methods of control include,Use of herbicides e.g. 2,4-DCultivationSlashingUp-rooting. V Defoliation. French Cameroon matures in about 3 months. There after it should be cut every 6-8 weeks. The grass should be about 1.2-1.5m high at the time of harvesting. Bana Grass grows up to 12 months without flowering. Defoliation should be done when there is high yield digestible matter. Vi Utilisation. Stems should be cut 2.5-5.0 cm abo0ve4 the soil surface to facilitate fast re-growth. A panga is used to cut. Excess napier is conserved as silage for future use. Cut forage is chopped into smaller pieces by use off a chaff cutter or a sharp panga. Vii production per unit area. Under good management, Napier grass gives a yield of up to 35 tons of dry matter DM per hectare per year. This contains 8-15 crude protein and this is enough to support 5 milking cows per year. 2. GUATEMALA GRASS Trypsacum laxum . It s a tall hardy, broad leafed grass with a vigorous growth. A Ecological Requirements. I Altitude-Up to 2000m above sea level. Ii Soils-Does well in a variety of soils. Iii Rainfall. -900mm p.a. That should be well distributed.


NPK 20:20:20 is applied at the rate of 200kg ha during planting for proper root growth and development. Iii Fertilizer Application. CAN or ASN is top dressed at the rate of 125kg haiv Weed ControlField should be kept weed free. This is done by hand cultivation, slashing or use of selective herbicides. V Utilisation. Grass lasts in the field for 18 months. During this period, the grass is harvested several times. It regenerates after every cutting. Columbus grass should be left to dry for two days before feeding to the animals to avoid Prussic and Hydro cyanic acid poisoning. This poison is found in wet grass. Production Per Unit Area-20 tons per hectare of dry matter DM per year under in good management. 4.KALES Brassica spp They supply succulent nutritious stems and leaves for feeding livestock. A Ecological RequirementSoils should be loam or clayRainfall 1000mmAltitude prefer high altitude. B Establishment and Management. Seeds are planted in nurseries 6 weeks before the rains. Land should be prepared to a fine tilth. Holes are dug at a spacing of 1mx0.3m. Transplanting is done at the onset of rains. DSP fertilizer is applied at a rate of 150kg ha when transplanting. The field should be kept weed free. C UtilisationLeafy stems are cut, chopped and given to livestock. Kales should be fed to milking cows together with dry roughages since they are succulent. About 15kg of kale is needed by animal per day. It should be given to the milking cows after milking to avoid tainting the milk. D Production per unit areaKales produce 35-50 tons fresh weight per hectares per year. Kales are quite rich in protein. 5. EDIBLE CANNA. Cana edulis It s a fodder crop with broad shinny leaves which are used to feed livestock. A Ecological RequirementRainfall-should be adequateAltitude-1500-200m above sea levelSoils-should be fertileb Establishment and Management. Land is cleared, ploughed and the harrowed. Holes are dug at a spacing of 1m x 1m.


A Ecological RequirementRainfall-should be adequateAltitude-1500-200m above sea levelSoils-should be fertileb Establishment and Management. Land is cleared, ploughed and the harrowed. Holes are dug at a spacing of 1m x 1m. Farmyard manure is mixed thoroughly in holes before planting. Rhizomes are planted at the onset of rains. Early weeding is done. Crop is top dressed 4 weeks after planting with nitrogenous fertilizer at the rate of 100kgN ha. C UtilisationEdible canna is cut and fed to livestock when fresh. Each lactating cow should be given 4-7kg of canna per day during the dry seasons. D Production per unit areaEdible canna produces about 100tons DM ha year6. SUGAR BEETS MARIGOLDS Beta vulgaris These are root fodder crops that are quite nutritious. A Ecological Requirements. Rainfall-more than 1000mmAltitude- should be highSoils should be well drained. B Establishment and ManagementThey are established through seeds. Seeds are planted in nurseries 6 weeks before the rains. Land is cleared, ploughed, and then harrowed to a medium tilth. Holes are dug 1.0m x 0.3m. DSP is applied at the rate of 150kg ha at planting time. The field should be kept weed free through cultivation, uprooting, slashing or by use of appropriate herbicides. Topdressing is done using CAN or ASN at the rate of 100kg ha. C Utilization. They are used for feeding livestock during the dry season at the rate of 22-27kg cow day. They are chopped into small pieces. They should be wilted first because their fresh leaves have oxalic acid which can be poisonous. D Production per unit area. Marigold produces between 30-40tons ha of herbage under good management. 7. KENYA WHITE CLOVER Trifolium semipilosum. It has slender spreading stems which produce roots and underground rhizomes.


Leaves and branches are cut and given to the animals directly. Cutting should not be done until the shrubs are 3-4m in height. Shrubs are cut back to a height of 0.5m above the ground once per year and at the beginning of the rains. Green seeds pods produced are removed and fed to animals, as they are very rich in proteins. Other importances of shrubsImprove the soil through nitrogen fixation e.g. leucaenia and calliandraTheir roots hold soil particles together thus controlling soil erosion. Their fallen leaves decay adding organic matter into the soil. Some provide with wood fuel especially the tree speciesd Production. Under good management, the shrubs give a considerable herbage yield for the livestock especially the browsers. FORAGE CONSERVATIONIn Kenya, there is always excess forage during the long and short rains April to June and November to December and a shortage during the dry months of January to March and September to October. There is therefore the need to conserve the excess forage as its often wasted or not fully utilized. Reasons for conserving forage. To distribute available forage for animals throughout the year. To provide feed for the dry season. To ensure better and full utilization of available land. On a large scale, conserved forage can be sold as hay etcMethods of conservationHay-this is dried forage mainly pasture grasses and legumes e.g. desmodium and Rhodes grass. Silage-This is an-aerobically fermented forage mainly applicable to succulent fodders such as Napier grass, maize and sorghums. Standing forage- Growing forage can be set aside for dry season feed and applicable for both pasture and fodders. A HAY MAKINGHay refers to forage which has been dehydrated to about 15-20 moisture content. The forage should be cut when about 50 of plants have flowered. Steps followed in hay makingi The crop is cut when about 50 of the plants have floweredii The crop is spread out evenly on the ground to dry for 2-3 days. It should be dried under controlled conditions in order to retain its nutritive value and the original crop colour. Iii The hay is windrowed and the gathered or baled. Iv The bales of hay are then stored in a shed out of reach of rainwater and sunshine.


It should be dried under controlled conditions in order to retain its nutritive value and the original crop colour. Iii The hay is windrowed and the gathered or baled. Iv The bales of hay are then stored in a shed out of reach of rainwater and sunshine. NB Rapid drying is recommended to ensure high quality hay. Slow drying results in oxidation of soluble carbohydrates hence poor quality. Prolonged exposure to sun results in the breakdown of chlorophyll and carotene. Factors determining the quality of hay. Forage species used. Stage of harvesting hence stem: leaf ratio. Length of the drying periodWeather condition during the drying processCondition of the storage structureB SILAGE MAKINGSilage is a fodder crop harvested while green and kept succulent by partial fermentation in a silo. A silo is the structure used for fermenting. The process of silage making is called ensiling. The objective of ensiling green forage is to preserve the material with minimum loss of nutrients. Advantages of silage makingMore nutrients are preservedIt has few field lossesIt is less dependent o n weather conditionsIt can be preserved for prolonged periods with minimum loss of nutrients. Once ensiled, there are no storage problems. It can be fed directly without liquid additives. Disadvantages of silage makingRequires skills and much attention. Labour intensive hence expensiveBulky to store and handleSusceptible to ensiling lossesMust be fed soon after removalMost farmers cannot spare sufficient forage for ensiling. Types of Silosi Trench SiloIt is the most popular and applicable to small-scale farmers. It s a rectangular trench on a slightly slopping ground to ensure proper drainage. Ii Clamp siloIt s constructed above the ground level in form of a trough with slanted sides for ease of compaction. Each side of the silo is made of a pair of timber walls. There is a gap between each pair of timber walls. Soil is put and compacted in these gaps. Between the two pairs of walls is the part where ensiling is done. A clamp may also be made of two stone walls and a cemented floor. Iii Bunker Tower siloA bunker silo is made of concrete under the ground and has vertical walls suitable for mechanical ensiling. A tower is a tall round metallic structure for mechanical ensiling.


A clamp may also be made of two stone walls and a cemented floor. Iii Bunker Tower siloA bunker silo is made of concrete under the ground and has vertical walls suitable for mechanical ensiling. A tower is a tall round metallic structure for mechanical ensiling. Steps followed in silage makingSilo is prepared before harvesting crop. The shape and size of the silo depends on the amount of forage to be ensiled. The crop is cut at the appropriate stage and wilted for 6-12 hours to about 65-75 moisture content. The crop is chopped up and put into the silo compacting it every 10-12cm layer. Silo should be filled as rapidly as possible. The ensiled material should have a Ridge or humped in appearance when ensiling is completed. Temp in the silo should be checked regularly during the ensiling period. If the temperature is higher than 32.2oc water should be added and compaction reduced. If temperature is below 32.20c, compaction should be increased and dry materials or molasses added. The ensiled material is covered with a polythene sheet or a layer of dry grass to protect it from water and air. The silo is covered with a thick layer of soil maintaining the ridge appearance. A trench is then dug all round the silo to drain off rainwater. Principles of ConservationRapid ensiling and compaction reduces aerobic respiration in the ensiled material. When the silo is finally sealed, the oxygen is cut off and aerobic respiration gradually gives way to fermentation. This allows lactic acid bacteria Lactobacillus spp to increase very rapidly within the first three to four days after silo sealing. Lactic acid bacteria act on the readily available carbohydrates to produce lactic acid and some amounts of Acetic, Propionic, Formic and Succinic acids. Lactic acid reduces the pH of forage from 4 to 2 or below. Low pH inhibits further bacterial growth and preserves the silage. The ensiling process is complete in 2-3 weeks depending on the quantity of ensiled material and may be preserved for many years provided the silo is water and airtight. USES OF ADDITIVESMaize and other cereal crops do not need additives if they are harvested at the right stage. Soft dough stage . Other plants e.g.


USES OF ADDITIVESMaize and other cereal crops do not need additives if they are harvested at the right stage. Soft dough stage . Other plants e.g. Napier grass and other grasses have low amounts of carbohydrates and often give poor quality silage. They therefore need additives of,Crushed grains at a rate of 100kg per ton of silage orMolasses at 20-40kg per ton of silage evenly distributed at the time of ensiling. Silage QualityThe relative proportions of organic acids in the silage is an indication of its quality. In good quality silage, the order of predominance should be; lactic, acetic, succinic and formic acids. Poor silage compaction leads to low temperature which results in excessive production of Butyric acid instead of Lactic acid. Good quality silage should be,Be from high quality forage cut at the proper stage of growth. Have 5-9 lactic acidHave a pH of 4.2 or below. Be free from moulds and bad odour such as ammonia and butyric acid. Be greenish to yellow in colour not brown or blackHave a fine texture with no sliminess. Silage lossesSurface spillage- up to 20 loss due to exposure and contact with soil. Seepage losses- extent of this loss increases with increase in herbage moisture. It can be up to 50 in very young and succulent forage. Gaseous losses- extended respiration results in loss of carbohydrates in form of carbon dioxide. The silo should be airtight. How to Calculate Silage Requirement in Dry MatterA cow requires 3kg of DM for every 100kg of body weight per day. Therefore a cow weighing 400kg will require 400 100 x 3 12kg of DM per day Since Silage has 40 DMThen for the cow to have 12kg DM it needs 12 40 x 100 30kg of silage per day. However, a cow should only get 50 of its daily Dm requirements from the silage. It should get the other 50 from pastures and other feeds. It should therefore get only 15kg of silage per day. If the silage is meant for the dry season, the farmer should estimate the length of the dry period. E.g.


It should therefore get only 15kg of silage per day. If the silage is meant for the dry season, the farmer should estimate the length of the dry period. E.g. from January to March there are 90 days. Therefore, silage required for one cow for 90 days will be;90days x 15kg day 1350kg of silage 1.35 tons One hectare of Napier produces about 80 tonnes of forage harvested in five cuttings in the year. One cutting therefore yields80tons 5 cuttings 16 tonnes of forage. If 1ha produces 16 tonnes of forageThen x hectares produces 1.35 tonnes of silage1 ha-------------16 tonnesX ha-------------1.35 tonnesX 13.5 16 0.084 hectares 840m2 , approximately a space of 30mx30mSilage density is about 500kg m3. If a farmer has two cows, the amount needed is2cows x 15kg x 90 days 2700kgThe volume of the silo to accommodate 2700kg would be approximately 6m3The silo would therefore have the following dimensions. 2.7m length x 1.5m width x 1.5m depth or3m x 2m x 1m or4m x 1.5m x 1mC STANDING FORAGEThis is the cheapest, easiest and most commonly used method of fodder conservation. This implies deferring cutting of the forage for the dry season feed. It however produces herbage of low quality but it can be supplemented by addition of additives. The fodder or the legume should be cut, weeded, and top dressed in early November after which cutting is deferred until it is required. LIVESTOCK HEALTH IIIIntroduction. A disease is any alteration in the state of the animal or its organs which interferes with the proper performance of its functions. The visible signs of a disease are called symptoms. There are specific conditions that help in observing the disease symptoms. They include:Pulse rate and respiration rateTemperatureBody conditionVisible mucous membranesSkin of the animalDefecationUrinationFeeding habit.


The visible signs of a disease are called symptoms. There are specific conditions that help in observing the disease symptoms. They include:Pulse rate and respiration rateTemperatureBody conditionVisible mucous membranesSkin of the animalDefecationUrinationFeeding habit. AppetiteLevel of productionMicro-organisms such a protozoa, bacteria, virus and fungi, cause diseases. Poor nutrition, physical injuries, chemical poisoning and parasite infestation cause other diseases. Organisms such as ticks and tsetse fly only help in spreading disease-causing organisms and are referred to as vectors. Disease predisposing factorsThese are conditions inside or outside the animals body, which lead to the animal contracting a disease or injury. They include:Age of the animalSex of the animalColour of the animalChange of climate environmentHeredityEnvironmentOvercrowdingPhysiological conditions such as fatigue, weakness, pregnancy etc. Animals encountering sick animals. Terms used in livestock diseasesIncubation periodIt s the duration between the time of infection and the time the first symptoms show up. 2 MortalityThis is the likelihood of death occurring in case of a disease outbreak. It s expressed as a of the affected animals and those which die. 3 TreatmentIt s the application of physical and chemical means to an animal to help it recover from a disease or preventing it from getting a disease. There are two types of treatment. Preventive treatmentCurative treatmentPreventive treatmentThis involves administration of drugs to prevent the occurrence of a disease. This can be done through vaccination and administration of prophylactic drugs such as coccidiostats to prevent coccidiosis. The creation of immunity and resistance to diseases is under the preventive treatment. Curative treatmentA curative treatment tries to restore a sick animal to good health. This can be done through:Good feedingProvision of clean environmentNeutralizing the ill effects of the diseaseInducing repair to damaged tissuesRelieving discomfort or injury to the animalPreventing further spread of the disease. 4 ImmunityThis is the ability of an animal to resist the infection of a disease. There are two types of immunity natural and artificial immunities. A Natural ImmunityIt s the ability of an animal to maintain itself free from infection. It s the inborn immunity. It can further be divided into two.


A Natural ImmunityIt s the ability of an animal to maintain itself free from infection. It s the inborn immunity. It can further be divided into two. Actively acquired immunity. This immunity is acquired when an animal suffers from a disease. Such an animal is able to defend itself from the same disease in future. Passively acquired immunity- this is passed through the mothers blood to the foetus or through milk colostrums. B Artificial immunityIt can also be divided into active and passiveCLASSIFICATION OF LIVESTOCK DISEASESLivestock diseases are classified into four major groups. Protozoan diseasesBacterial diseasesViral diseasesNutritional diseases1. PROTOZOAN DISEASESDiseases in this category include:East coast fever ECF AnaplasmosisCoccidiosisTrypanosomiasis Nagana i East Coast FeverAnimals attacked- mainly cattleCausal organism-Theirelia parva- a protozoan transmitted by the brown ear tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus . The disease is also called Theireliosis its incubation period is 15 days. SymptomsSwollen lymph nodesHigh temp-feverExcess salivationLachrimation-a lot of tear productionDifficulties in breathing due to fluid accumulation in the lungs. CoughingSight impairmentHaemorrhages in the vulva and the mouth. Control and TreatmentTicks should be controlled through dipping, spraying or hand dressing regularly. Farm should be fenced to keep out strange animals and also to confine animals within. Treatment using appropriate drugs. Ii Anasplasmosis Gall sickness Animals attacked cattle, sheep, goats,Causal organism-Anaplasma marginale, a protozoan transmitted by the blue tick Boophilus decolaratus It can also be transmitted through contaminated surgical equipments, bleeding and hypodermic needles. The incubation period is 3-4 weeksSymptomsFeverConstipation-hard dungPaleness in the gums, eyes and lips. An indication of anaemia. Milk flow into the udder ceases. Control and TreatmentTick controlControl of biting insects e.g. mosquitoesInjection using antibioticsIron injection.


Separate udder clothes should be used for each animal. Sharp objects should be removed from grazing and milking areas to prevent teat injuries. Open wounds on the teats should be treated immediately. Ii Fowl typhoidAnimals affected- poultryCausal organism- Bacterium called Salmonella gallinarumSymptomsBirds are depressedRespiratory distress and birds are dullDrooping wingsCombs and wattles become pale and shrunken due to anaemia. Greenish yellow diarrhoeaSudden deathControl and TreatmentAll infected birds should be killed and properly disposedPoultry house should be clean, dry and well ventilated. Regular vaccinationEggs for hatching and chicks should be obtained from reliable sources. Sulphur drugs mixed with water or mash are used for treatment. NB Furazolidone at the rate of 0.04 in mash for ten days treats the disease effectively. Iii Foot rot Foul - in- the - Foot Animals affected- all cloven animals e.g. cattle, goats, sheep most Serious . Causal organism- caused by the following bacteria-Fusiformis necrophorus and Fusiformis nodosusPredisposing factorsFilthy surroundings e.g. wet and muddy areas. Cracking of the hooves due to overgrowth. SymptomsAnimals foot become swollenPus and rotten smell come out of the hoofKneeling when grazing if front feet are affectedAnimals spend most of their time lying down when the hind feet are affectedEmaciation due to lack of feeding. Control and treatmentProvide clean environment i.e. avoid dampness and muddy conditionsPractice regular foot examination and hoof trimmingPractice a regular walk through a copper sulphate Blue vitriol footbath at 5-10 solution or Formalin at 2-5 solution. Wounds on the feet should be treated with antisepticsHealthy sheep should be moved to dry clean areas. Separate healthy animals from sick ones. Iv Contagious abortionIts also called Brucellosis or Bang s disease . NB This is a contagious and infectious disease. Causal organismCattle-Brucella abortus. Pigs- Brucella suis.


NB This is a contagious and infectious disease. Causal organismCattle-Brucella abortus. Pigs- Brucella suis. Goats and sheep- Brucella malitensisMilk from an infected animal should not be drunk. SymptomsAbortion or a pre-mature birth of the youngDuring later stages of pregnancy if abortion occurs, placenta is retained. The cow may become barren while bulls have low libido and have inflamed testes. A yellowish brown, slimy, odourless discharge from the vulva may occur after abortion. ControlCulling infected animalsVaccination against the diseaseThe attendant should avoid contaminating his hands with the aborted foetusCleanliness to be observedA blood test should be carried out for all the breeding animals in order to detect the infected ones. Use of artificial insemination. NB There is no effective treatment. V ScoursAnimals affected- young one of cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats. Causal organism-A bacterium called Escherichia coli. Predisposing causesUnhygienic conditions in the house of the young onesOverfeeding the calf with milk or feeding it with very cold milkLack of colostrumsFeeding young ones at irregular intervalsAbsence of green fodder in the mothers diet which causes lack of vit ASymptomsWhite or yellowish diarrhoea in calvesFaeces have a pungent smellHigh tempAnimal becomes restlessLoss of appetiteSunken eyesUndigested milk and mucus with blood spots in faecesSudden death if no treatmentvi Black quarterThis is an acute disease, which is contagious. Animals affected- all ruminantsCausal organismBacteria called Clostridium chauvei, which enters the body through contaminated water and wounds. SymptomsLameness in animalsAffected parts of the body become swollen immediatelyHigh temperature-feverThe animal breathes heavily and fastThe animal is dull and losses appetiteThere is grunting and grinding of teethSudden deathBlood oozes from the anus and noseAnimal stops chewing the cudIf the cut muscles are cut they appear darkControlAffected animals may be treated with antibiotics e.g. penicillin, oxytetracycline and sulphathiazole.


Animals affected- all ruminantsCausal organismBacteria called Clostridium chauvei, which enters the body through contaminated water and wounds. SymptomsLameness in animalsAffected parts of the body become swollen immediatelyHigh temperature-feverThe animal breathes heavily and fastThe animal is dull and losses appetiteThere is grunting and grinding of teethSudden deathBlood oozes from the anus and noseAnimal stops chewing the cudIf the cut muscles are cut they appear darkControlAffected animals may be treated with antibiotics e.g. penicillin, oxytetracycline and sulphathiazole. Vaccination using black quarter vaccineThe carcass should be buried deep or burnt completely. Vii AnthraxThis is an acute infectious and notifiable disease. Animals affected- cattle, sheep, goats, man, and wild animals. Causal organismBacteria called Bacillus anthracis. Animals get anthrax throughGrazing in infected pastures as the bacteria is found in the soil. Bites by insectsOpen woundsBone meal from infected animals. The bacterium is capable of forming spores outside the animal body. SymptomsExtensive bloating of the stomach after death. FeverBlood stains in the faeces and milkIn pigs the throat swells and this may cause death due to suffocationCarcasses of an anthrax attack lack rigor mortis i.e. the carcass is not stiff as in other animals. In the dead animal, a tar-like watery blood comes off the orifices e.g. nose, anus and mouth. Blood does not clot quickly. ControlTreatment of wounds. Giving large doses of anti-anthrax serum for curative treatmentThe carcass must not be openedVaccination using Blanthax in areas where the disease is prevalentImposing quarantine in case of disease outbreak. Dead animal must be disposed off properly by burning or deep burying. Viii PneumoniaThis is an infectious lung fever. Animals affected- calves, kid, lambs, piglets and poultry. Causal organismBacterium called Mycoplasma mycoides. Dust or worms in the lungs could cause the disease.


Animals affected- calves, kid, lambs, piglets and poultry. Causal organismBacterium called Mycoplasma mycoides. Dust or worms in the lungs could cause the disease. Predisposing causesPoor ventilationLack of enough oxygenOvercrowdingAge- young animals are more prone to the diseaseEffects of diarrhoea and other illnessesDampness and chilliness. SymptomsThe animal becomes dull and reluctant to moveLoss of appetiteThere is a rough hair coatEmaciationAnimal breathes rapidlyAbnormal lung sounds i.e. bubblingIf the chest is pressed the animal starts coughingFluctuating temperaturesNasal mucous discharge. Control and treatmentYoung animals should be kept in warm pens. Use of antibioticsIsolating the infected animalsProper sanitation3. VIRAL DISEASESi RinderpestThis is a highly contagious and infectious disease. It s notifiable. Animals affected- cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and wild animals with cloven hoofs. Causal organism-VirusIncubation period- 3-8 daysSymptomsHigh temperatureStaring coatDischarges in the mouth and noseDiarrhoea and dysenteryMucous membranes of the mouth and nose become red and they develop ulcers. EmaciationGrinding of the teethDeath in 2-10 days after incubation. ControlVaccination annuallyCulling the infected animalsNotify the authorities in case of an outbreakQuarantine in case of the diseaseSeparate sick animals from healthy ones. Ii Foot and Mouth DiseaseIt is a highly contagious and infectious disease. It is notifiable. Animals affected- cattle sheep, goats, some wild animals. Causal organismVirus types A, C, and DThe virus can be transmitted by contaminated litter, feet, garbage and infected saliva. SymptomsSharp rise in temperature lasting only for a few hoursBlisters or wounds appear on the mouth and feet. The tongue, lips and gums are inflamed.


Causal organismVirus types A, C, and DThe virus can be transmitted by contaminated litter, feet, garbage and infected saliva. SymptomsSharp rise in temperature lasting only for a few hoursBlisters or wounds appear on the mouth and feet. The tongue, lips and gums are inflamed. This makes eating difficultLameness due to lesions between the skin and hoofThere is profuse salivationVesicles may appear on teats and uddersThe animal becomes weak and thin very fastThere is drop in milk productionControlVaccination every six monthsQuarantine in case of outbreakCullingUse of disinfectants on wounds. Iii Newcastle DiseaseIt s a notifiable disease, very contagious and highly infectious disease. Animals affected- poultry especially three months to one year. Causal organismVirusSymptomsBirds have difficulty in breathingBeaks remain wide open and the necks are strainedThe bird is dullThe bird stands with eyes closed all the timeLoss of appetiteNasal discharges, which force the birds to shake heads to clear. Birds stagger in motionWatery yellow diarrhoeaThe birds have their beaks and wings downControlQuarantineCullingCleaning and disinfecting the houses before bringing in new stockVaccination during the first six weeks and two to three months lateriv Fowl poxAnimals affected- all poultryCausal organismVirusPredisposing factorsPresence of woundsPresence of mosquitoes, ticks, lice and other biting insects that spread the disease. SymptomsLesions on the combs and wattlesLesions on legs, vent, feet and under the wings. Lose of appetite hence emaciation and deathDifficulty in breathing and swallowing. A watery discharge from the eyes in the early stages of the diseaseThe bird become dullControlRemove all infected birds and kill themVaccinate remaining healthy birds. 4. NUTRITIONAL DISEASESi Milk FeverThis is a non infectious disease. Animals affected-cows, goats, and pigs that have recently given birth. CauseThis is due to loss of calcium and phosphorous through milk secretion. There is also an increase in the level of magnesium and sugar in the blood.


Animals affected-cows, goats, and pigs that have recently given birth. CauseThis is due to loss of calcium and phosphorous through milk secretion. There is also an increase in the level of magnesium and sugar in the blood. SymptomsDullnessMuscular twitching causing the animal to trembleStaggering as the animal movesAnimal falls down and becomes unconsciousThe animal lies down on its side and the whole body stiffensBody functions such as urination, defecation and milk secretion stop. Sudden death if the animal is not treated immediatelyStomach contents are drawn into the mouthComplete loss of appetiteControli TreatmentIntravenous injection of soluble calcium salt in form of calcium borogluconate 60gms. Dissolved in 500cc of water that is boiled and cooledii Nursing careThe sick animal should be kept in a comfortable position. Fresh water should be given. Mechanical removal of urine speeds up recovery. PreventionPartial milking of cows with past cases of milk fever is done for the first ten daysProviding sufficient amounts of calcium and phosphorous in the dietHigh doses of vit D and parathyroid extractionsNB the animal suffering from milk fever should never be given medicine through the mouth because,It will not be able to swallow the medicineThe medicine may get into the lungs thereby promoting lung fever speeding up death. Ii BloatAnimals affected- mainly cattle and sheep. Goats may also be affectedCauses-Accumulation of gases as a result of food fermentation in the rumen. This is caused by:Obstruction of the oesophagus due to bulky food particles such as potatoes, carrots etcAbnormal pressure exerted on the oesophagus by a swelling in the wall of the chestIndigestion caused by accumulation of gases due to paralysis of the rumen and the valve at its entrance. This may be due to the animal eating poisonous herbs or due to sudden change of feeds especially soft green forage, which is taken in large quantities. E.g. Beans, cabbage leaves, lush grass Lucerne etcSymptomsThe left side of the abdomen is excessively distended. Death may occur within hours due to too much pressure exerted on blood vessels, lungs and heart. ControlFeed ruminants with dry roughage during the wet season.