The African elected members demanded for a constitutional conference culminating into the independence constitution. The independence constitution 1960-1962 The first Lancaster House Conference 1960 Attended by all members of Legco and two nominated members, the conference received the following demands; a Africans demanded for true democracy, where one man would have one vote. B The Arabs wanted to retain the ten-mile coastal strip, while Somalis wanted reunification with Somalia. C Michael Blundell, representing a section of Europeans demanded for a multi-racial government while Captain Briggs representing the white extremists demanded for creation of provinces along racial lines. All these proposal were moderated by the British government The period after the first Lancaster House conference witnessed a lot of differences among Africans and among other races. Among the Africans, the differences culminated into the formation of KANU in March 1960 at Kiambu with James Gichuru as president and KADU in Ngong Town with Ronald Ngala as the president. The main difference between KADU and KANU was that while KANU was advocating gor a unitary government, KADU wanted a federal system. The second Lancaster House conference 1962 .When KANU refused to form government despite winning the elections, demanding for the release of Jomo Kenyatta, KADU formed a rather minority government that was heavily dominated by the colonial officials. Such a government was rejected by most people thus creating instability that led to the British Authorities calling for the second Lancaster House Conference. The following important issues were discussed; a The future of the coastal strip that belonged to the sultan prior to colonialism. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 205 b The future of North Eastern Province North Frontier District c Security of the minority. The participants in the formulation of the independence constitution were representatives of various political parties: - Paul Ngei APP , KADU and KANU.


The following important issues were discussed; a The future of the coastal strip that belonged to the sultan prior to colonialism. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 205 b The future of North Eastern Province North Frontier District c Security of the minority. The participants in the formulation of the independence constitution were representatives of various political parties: - Paul Ngei APP , KADU and KANU. Others were representatives of the Asian and European communities. The 1962 conference settled for a federal structure with a strong central government. A coalition government was formed briefly but when the 1962 constitution was promulgated, it was followed by a general election in May 1963.The third and final conference in 1963 resulted in the drafting and adoption of Kenya's first independent Constitution by the British Parliament The 1963 constitution established a parliamentary system with executive powers vested in a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister, The Queen of England remained Head of State. Independence 1963 Kanu won the May elections and Kenya Attained internal self-government with Jomo Kenyatta as the first Prime Minister on 1st June 1963. Kenya attained full independence on 12th December 1963 when the Queen ceased to be the head of state. Kenya has been using the Independence Constitution upto August 2010 though with so many amendments. Main provisions of the independence constitution of Kenya a The independence constitution provided for a regional majimbo government with each of the seven regions having a regional assembly and president. The boundaries of the regions were given protection in the constitution. B It also provided for a bicameral parliament consisting of the senate and the house of representatives upper house and lower house. The lower house comprised 117 elected members and 12 special members. The senate comprised 41 members representing the 41 administrative districts and one representing Nairobi city. Though the senate was subordinate to the House of Representatives, it had powers to authorize declaration of a state of emergence, 65 of the senators were required to approve the amendment of constitution. Also all Bills required approval of both houses. C The constitution stipulated that the Prime Minister appointed by the governor was to be head of Government and Queen the Head of State, represented by the Governor General. The powers of the governor were defence of the country, foreign affairs, internal security and approval of legislation.


Also all Bills required approval of both houses. C The constitution stipulated that the Prime Minister appointed by the governor was to be head of Government and Queen the Head of State, represented by the Governor General. The powers of the governor were defence of the country, foreign affairs, internal security and approval of legislation. D The constitution recommended a multiparty system of government and the party with the majority of seats forming the government. E It contained the Bill of Rights, which protected the individual s rights. The Bill of rights was modeled on the European convention on Human Rights and Fundamental freedoms. F The constitution provided for an elaborate scheme to protect the minority rights. The minorities in this case were the Europeans, Asians and some indigenous communities. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 206 g Independent Electoral commission was set up consisting of the speakers of the two houses and a nominee of the Prime Minister. Also it comprised nominees representing the regions. This was to ensure impartiality and honesty in elections. H The constitution provided for an independent and impartial judiciary to ensure justice and prevent corruption. Judges were accorded security of tenure which was extended to the Attorney General, the government s principal legal advisor. I It provided for public service commission. The aim was insulate the civil service recruitment and promotions from abuse and corruption. J An independent land board. Post colonial Era 1963-2010 . From independence to Mult-party democracy period 1963-1991 Like many former British colonies, Kenya started off with a west Minister system of government. The first Constitutional amendment in independent Kenya was in 1964. Kenya became a republic and the executive became presidential. The senate and regions were also abolished. A Constitutional review in June 1982 officially transformed Kenya into a one-party state. A parliamentary act in December 1991 repealed the one-party system provisions of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system. The period after 1992 was influenced by Global issues like the decline of the cold war, collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 and the intensified struggle for democracy all over the world. In 1997, the Inter Party Parliamentary Group IPPG was formed with membership from the Opposition and KANU mps.


Raila Odinga was to become Kenya s second Prime minister after the position was created in the accord arrangement Two deputy Prime Minister Positions would be filled by the PNU and ODM parties respectively. Provision for An expanded cabinet with the two parties being accorded slots as per their proportion in the house. B In 2008 the Constitution of Kenya Review Act 2008 was passed and a Committee of Experts CoE was established as the main technical constitutional review organ to drive the process. C The CoE was chaired by Nzamba Kitonga, the deputy chair was Ms Atsango Chesoni, other members were Ms Njoki Ndung'u, Mr Otiende Amolo,Mr Abdirashid Hussein, Mr Bobby Mkangi, Professor Christina Murray South Africa , Dr Chaloka Beyani Zambia and Dr Frederick Ssempebwav Uganda . D 23 February 2009 Members of the CoE were appointed by the President were later on sworn in, e On 17 November 2009 CoE released the draft to the public and invited views and comments on the draft constitution, For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 208 f By 23rdFebruary 2010. CoE had submitted the final draft of constitution to the Parliamentary Select Committee. G On 4thaugust 2010 Kenya held a Constitutional Referendum where the new constitution was overwhelmingly endorsed. H On 28th august 2010, the new constitution was promulgated and became operational making Kenya the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitutions. Stages in the constitution making process in Kenya since independence 1 Debate over contentious issues. Issues like the entrenchment of section 2A in the independence constitution in 1981 raised concerns among various stake holders and groups. The issue of whether to include the position of Prime Minister or not has also been debated for many years. 2 Collection of public views. The Saitoti commission the Constitution review commission established by Moi in 1990 had the objective of collecting views of Kenyans concerning how KANU was to operate in the best way possible. In June 2001, the CKRC, chaired by Yash Pal Ghai was mandated to collect views as part of the constitution review process. 3 Civic education.


The Saitoti commission the Constitution review commission established by Moi in 1990 had the objective of collecting views of Kenyans concerning how KANU was to operate in the best way possible. In June 2001, the CKRC, chaired by Yash Pal Ghai was mandated to collect views as part of the constitution review process. 3 Civic education. In 2001, the Ghai Commission was mandated and funded to provide civic education. 4 Convening of constitutional conferences. For example, The 2002 National Constitution Conference at Bomas of Kenya and other similar conferences. 5 Drafting of the constitution. This involved both local and international experts who drafted the constitution between 2000 and 2010. This was mainly the work of the Ghai led CKRC and the Committee of experts led by Nzamba Gitonga. 6 The referendum. During the 2005 referendum, the Wako Draft constitution was rejected. In August 2010, another referendum was held and the 2010 proposed New Constitution was approved. 7 Promulgation of the constitution. On 27th of August 2010, President Mwai Kibaki presided over the promulgation of the new constitution of Kenya. Constitutional Changes in Kenya since independence upto 2010 1 The 1963 independence constitution marked the end of colonial rule and transformed the colony into a dominion. It established a parliamentary system with executive powers vested in a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the Queen of England from the majority party in Parliament. The Queen of England remained Head of State as represented by the Governor General who was also the Commander-in-Chief 2 By the 1stamendment Act 28 of 1964, published in November 1964, Kenya became a republic and the executive became presidential. The amendment outlined the criteria to be met by a presidential candidate. It made provision of a Vice President who would be appointed by the president from among the members of parliament. Jaramogi Oginga Odinga became the first occupant of that office. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 209 3 By The 2nd amendment Act 38 of 1964 published on 17th December 1964, the senate and regions were also abolished.


It made provision of a Vice President who would be appointed by the president from among the members of parliament. Jaramogi Oginga Odinga became the first occupant of that office. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 209 3 By The 2nd amendment Act 38 of 1964 published on 17th December 1964, the senate and regions were also abolished. 4 3rd amendment Act 14 of 1965, published on 8th June 1965, altered parliamentary Majorityrequired for approval of a state of emergency to only a simple majority from the previous 65 . The term region was replaced with province. The amendment altered the title of Supreme Court. 5 By the 4th amendment Act 16 of 1966, published on 12th April 1966, commonwealth citizens became eligible for Kenyan citizenship. Also any legislator jailed for six months or more or missed to attend eight consecutive parliamentary seatings without the speaker s permission had to forfeit his her parliamentary seat. 6 On 28th April 1966, an amendment was passed, published on 30th April, to compel MPs who defected from sponsoring party, to resign from parliament and seek re-election. This amendment targeted Kenya People s Union KPU of Jaramogi Odinga that had been formed that year. The amendment was published, tabled, debated, passed and received presidential assent within 48 hours. It was nicknamed the KPU amendment . 7 In May 1966, the Public Security Act was passed, published on 7thJune 1966, empowering the president to detain a citizen without trial on grounds of being a threat to state security. The president also acquired power to control freedom of the press. 8 In 1966, a constitutional amendment abolished the Bicameral Legislature and replaced it with a Unicameral Legislature, chosen directly by the electorate. The Act was published on 4th January 1967. The voting majority to change the Constitution was lowered to two-thirds of the MPs. 9 In 1968, by the 9th amendment, published on 12th April 1968, the president was empowered to alter provincial and district boundaries. The act abolished the provincial councils and all representatives to the provincial and district boundaries. This marked the end of regionalism.


9 In 1968, by the 9th amendment, published on 12th April 1968, the president was empowered to alter provincial and district boundaries. The act abolished the provincial councils and all representatives to the provincial and district boundaries. This marked the end of regionalism. 10 In 1968, by the 10th amendment, Act 45 published on 12th July 1968, the procedure for presidential elections and succession in the event of his death was laid down. Also, that all candidates for a general election should be nominated by a political party. The act also gave the president power to nominate 13 MPs to replace the 12 specially elected members of the House of Representatives. 11 In 1974, the age qualification for presidential candidates was also lowered to 35 from 40 years. The minimum voting age was altered from 21 to 18 years. 12 In 1975, an amendment of the constitution empowered the president to pardon any election offender at his own discretion. This was done to favour Paul Ngei who been found guilty of an election offence. It was named the Ngei Amendment . The bill went through all the stages in one afternoon and received presidential assent the following day. 13 In 1975, Kiswahili was declared the national language of the national assembly. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 210 14 In 1977, the Kenya court of appeal was established after the breakup of the East African Community. 15 The 18th amendment Act passed in 1979 was the first one under president Moi. It provided that public officers had to resign six months in advance in order to qualify as candidates for parliamentary elections. 16 In 1979, both Kiswahili and English were declared languages of the national assemb ly. 17 By The 19th amendment Act of 1981 published in 1982, Kenya became a de jure one party state. KANU became the only lawful party in Kenya. The infamous section 2A was introduced in the constitution. Kenya had been a de facto one party state between 1969and 1982 . The post of Chief Secretary was created to head the public service. The first occupant being Jeremiah Kiereini. 18 By the 1985 20th amendment Act, the High Court began acting as a Court of Appeal.


The post of Chief Secretary was created to head the public service. The first occupant being Jeremiah Kiereini. 18 By the 1985 20th amendment Act, the High Court began acting as a Court of Appeal. 19 The 21st amendment Act passed in 1985 repealed Section 89 of the constitution which provided for the acquisition of Citizenship for anyone born in Kenya after December 11th 1963. 20 In 1987, the security of tenure of the Attorney General, Chief Secretary, The Comptroller and Auditor General was removed. The president could now dismiss them at will. Office of chief secretary was abolished. 21 In 1988, the security of tenure of Puisine Judges and Chairman of Public Service Commission was removed. The removal of security of tenure of the above officers sparked a lot of condemnation from LSK and main stream churches. 22 In 1988, an amendment was pass that provided the police with powers to hold a suspect in custody for upto fourteen days before taking him her to court if the crime constituted a capital offence. This is what led to detaining of persons suspected of opposing the government in the dingy basement of Nyayo House where some were tortured to death. 23 1990- Security of tenure of the offices of AG and Controller and Auditor General was reinstated. 24 A parliamentary act in December 1991 repealed the one-party system provisions section 2A of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system. Multiparty elections were held the following year in December. 25 In 1991, an amendment that was passed limited the tenure of the president to a maximum of two-five year terms. 26 After 1997 elections, Parliament, on the initiative of the government, passed the Constitution of Kenya Review Act that set the pace for comprehensive constitutional reforms. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 211 27 A constitutional review commission, called the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission CKRC , was established to provide civic education, seek public input and prepare a draft constitution. 28 In October 2000, parliament passed a Bill entrenching the Constitution of Ken ya Review Commission CKRC headed by Professor Yash Pal Ghai into the independence constitution.


26 After 1997 elections, Parliament, on the initiative of the government, passed the Constitution of Kenya Review Act that set the pace for comprehensive constitutional reforms. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 211 27 A constitutional review commission, called the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission CKRC , was established to provide civic education, seek public input and prepare a draft constitution. 28 In October 2000, parliament passed a Bill entrenching the Constitution of Ken ya Review Commission CKRC headed by Professor Yash Pal Ghai into the independence constitution. 29 In 2005, Parliament amended the constitution of Kenya Review Act to allow the Attorney General to come up with the Proposed New Constitution, popularly known as the Wako Draft 30 The draft constitution was ultimately rejected by Kenyans at the constitutional referendum in 2005 because of disagreements amongst various stakeholders . 31 The rejection of the draft constitution by Kenyans in the referendum of 2005 meant that the 1963 constitution as amended remained the basic law of Kenya. . 32 28 February 2008The National Accord and Reconciliation Act NARA was signed by President Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga to end violence that erupted after the December 2007 presidential elections. Agenda No 4 of this arrangement calls for a new process to finalize the long awaited constitution of Kenya 33 In 2008 the Constitution of Kenya Review Act 2008 was passed and a Committee of Experts CoE was established as the main technical constitutional review organ to drive the process. The CoE was chaired by Nzamba Kitonga; the deputy chair was Ms Atsango Chesoni, other members were Ms Njoki Ndung'u, Mr Otiende Amolo,Mr Abdirashid Hussein Mr Bobby Mkangi Professor Christina Murray South Africa Dr Chaloka Beyani Zambia and Dr Frederick Ssempebwav Uganda. 34 On 28thaugust 2010, the new constitution was promulgated and became operational making Kenya the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitution. Key changes in the New Constitution. A Reduction of president s executive powers. B Devolution of power to regions creation of county and national governments. C Creation of the senate and national assembly to constitute parliament.


Key changes in the New Constitution. A Reduction of president s executive powers. B Devolution of power to regions creation of county and national governments. C Creation of the senate and national assembly to constitute parliament. D On Citizenship, Birth and registration are the only recognize ways of attaining Kenyan citizenship. Dual citizenship is now recognized by the constitution. E Recognition of the Kadhi s courts as subordinate courts in the judicial court system. F Expansion of the citizens Bill of Rights to guarantee equal representation for either gender in all governance structures. FEATURES OF THE NEW CONSTITUTION. Why there was need to have a new constitution in Kenya. The need to meet the changing needs of the Kenyan society, e.g. due to population growth. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 212 The rise of gender sensitivity in Kenya The need to address the rights of women which had not been adequately addressed in the outgoing constitution. The constant misuse of executive authority by the Moi and Kenyatta regime the need to give less or more power to the executive. The need to depart from the colonial policies that found their way into the outgoing constitution. The need to safeguard against social vices like corruption and land grabbing. The need to enhance unity and realize a liberal society due to political maturity. Problems that Kenya faced in realization of a new constitutional dispensation. A Party differences have been transferred to the constitution making process e.g. the NARC fallout, the ODM wrangles between Raila and Ruto. Etc. B Sectarian interests based on tribe, religion, age, sex which is hard to satisfy. E.g in relation to creation of counties, Kadhis court and land laws. C Attempts to project personality, individual or group interests rather than national interest into the process. D Direct misinformation of the public and propaganda by politicians and other groups with selfish interests. E Illiteracy and ignorance of the electorate and therefore easily misled. F Tension and sometimes violence marred the whole review process. G Limited financial resources and personnel h Lack of unity of purpose and co-operation among existing political parties hence difficulty in hammering out compromise.. i Inadequate civic education wrong civic education. J Lack of consultation with all the interested stake holders. K An attempt to tie the constitutional review process with election time-table, political programmes and interests.


I Inadequate civic education wrong civic education. J Lack of consultation with all the interested stake holders. K An attempt to tie the constitutional review process with election time-table, political programmes and interests. Why Kenya s new constitution is regarded as supreme. A The Constitution is the supreme law of the Republic and binds all persons and all State organs at both levels of government. B No person may claim or exercise State authority except as authorized under the Constitution. C The validity or legality of the Constitution is not subject to challenge by or before any court or other State organ. D Any law, including customary law that is inconsistent with the Constitution is void to the extent of the inconsistency, and any act or omission in contravention of the Constitution is invalid. E The general rules of international law shall form part of the law of Kenya. F Any treaty or convention ratified by Kenya shall form part of the law of Kenya under this Constitution. Functions of the Kenyan constitution For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 213 a It is the fundamental law of Kenya. B It has helped in establishing the philosophy, character and structure of the Kenyan government. C It has laid down principles which determine government power and duties. D It r regulates, distributes and limits the functions of different institutions of the state. E It spells out the basis of relationship between the Ke nyans and the government and what rights should be in that relationship. Role played by the Kenyan constitution in governing the country a It protects the interests of the weak in the society from those who would want to dominate them. B It checks the powers of the dictatorial rulers. C It defines how to rise to power hence preventing unnecessary power struggles. D It provides for the separation of powers between the three arms of government. E It defines the powers of those in authority hence preventing misuse of power. F It defines relations with other countries g It specifies on how a government is to be formed. DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS What is democracy? The is derived from the Greek word Democratia Demos meaning people and Kratas meaning rule or power . It is a form of government where political decisions are directly in the hands of the citizens. Key aspects of a real democracy. A Political aspect. The consent of the governed expressed directly or indirectly through their elected representatives must be sought when making political decisions.


Key aspects of a real democracy. A Political aspect. The consent of the governed expressed directly or indirectly through their elected representatives must be sought when making political decisions. Public opinion must be given priority in governance. B Social aspect. Human dignity must be valued at all times. Every individual should be free to organize his own lifestyle, hold and express opinions, enjoy company of others and join associations. C Economic aspect. All citizens must be provided with equal opportunities. Exploitation of humans by fellow humans should be eliminated. Means of production should be nationalized to reduce inequalities between the rich and the poor. Types of democracy 1 Pure or direct democracy. This is where the people are directly involved and participate in decision-making. Such a democracy has an advantage in that the laws made are easily accepted by all the people since they feel they own the laws. This is common form of democracy in smaller organizations and was also used in ancient Greece. 2 Indirect democracy. This is a type of democracy where citizens exercise their right in decision making not directly as individuals, but through their agreed representatives, elected by the citizens. Parliament acts as the basic institution in this type of democracy. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 214 The elected may make Appointments of persons to fill other positions like the Cabinet or carry out Nomination hand-picking of additional representatives to join the elected ones. 3 Constitutional Democracy. This is where democracy is exercised but within the limits of the constitution. The minority rights are guaranteed freedom of expression, association and worship .It is also referred to as Liberal democracy and is a form of representative democracy. Merits of democracy a It is founded on the concept of the people and therefore leaders cannot ignore the people from whom they get authority to rule. It is most popular form of government. B It recognizes equality among all the people without discrimination. It advocates equality before the law and anyone can rise to power regardless of one s background or environment. C It promotes patriotism or national pride as it urges people to participate in their governance. This reduces chances of a revolution d It promotes liberty and peace as it advocates for peaceful coexistence. People develop a sense of cooperation. It can also promote international cooperation when extended beyond the borders. E Since it is based on moral and educative values, democracy helps individuals to develop their personality. It develops initiative of the people and their sense of responsibility.


It can also promote international cooperation when extended beyond the borders. E Since it is based on moral and educative values, democracy helps individuals to develop their personality. It develops initiative of the people and their sense of responsibility. F Democracy balances the liberty of the individual with the power of the state. Demerits of democracy a Democracy promotes dictatorship by the majority. The majority government by fulfilling the election pledges to please the supporting electorate ends up neglecting the political, social and economic interests of the minority who did not vote for it. B Democracy encourages class struggle and corruption as only those that possess money can engage in intensive campaigns and get elected due to their influence. Then once elected, they pass laws that protect their interests. C A democratic government is usually slow and wasteful since consultations have to be made when making a decision. Time and public resources are used in the process of seeking the views of the majority. D The ethical value of democracy is questionable. It is not easy to find an honest, sincere man of good moral character being elected. E Democracy may perpetuate incompetence since it is numbers which matter when choosing a leader not the leadership qualities. Where a majority of the electorate is ignorant, they may make poor decision during elections thus promoting incompetence. F Although democracy is regarded as the rule of the majority, in essence, it is the elected minority who rule. Democracy is therefore as a form of dictatorship by the informed or elected minority. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 215 Principles of democracy. Principle-basic truth or general law. A Freedom of speech, debate and enquiry. The basic healthy political culture among a group of people is based on open debate among citizens where they can express their views without fear. B People s participation as a whole in government. Through free, fair and regular elections, the government should remain a servant of the people and not master. Democracy is based on consent which can be withdrawn if the government fails to satisfy peoples expectations. C Open and accountable media. The media must be open in their agenda and be held accountable to the public. Media monopolies should not be allowed to develop. D Economic democracy. This implies the decentralization of economic power so that individuals and communities can be economically empowered to create and control their own wealth. E Equality before the law. Judgment should be made in accordance with a written law, rather than in an arbitrary manner.


This implies the decentralization of economic power so that individuals and communities can be economically empowered to create and control their own wealth. E Equality before the law. Judgment should be made in accordance with a written law, rather than in an arbitrary manner. Each citizen also has an equal ability to seek and receive justice. Human rights Human rights refers to the accepted principles of fairness and justice- or the universal moral rights that belong equally to all people in their capacity as human beings regardless of sex, race, and tribe, and language, place of origin, age or political beliefs. Why human rights are important. A Rights are necessary for human beings to achieve a dignified life, fulfill their potential and to satisfy both their physical and spiritual needs. B Rights are inherent to human beings. One has rights purely because they are human. They are not granted by the state. C Rights empower citizens and residents by giving them control in decision making organs of the state. D Rights justify special treatment of minorities and other special or disadvantaged groups or communities. E Rights provide guidance to organs of state regarding the exercise of state power. F Rights such as the right to vote, freedom of expression and of the press ensure the public access the necessary information necessary for the protection of democracy and ensure accountability of public authorities. G Respect for human rights limits internal and external conflicts and strengthens national unity. Classification of Human rights a Social economic and cultural rights. On the basis of these rights, the state is expected to pursue policies that enable individual, families or groups to earn a living and provide basic needs including education and medical care for themselves. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 216 b Solidarity rights. These are rights that focus on the whole community. They require that the state to pursue policies which do not destroy natural resource or waste financial resources but instead create conditions for peaceful co-existence. These rights include the right to clean, healthy and sustainable environment, peace, and development. C Civil and political rights. The rights include the right o vote, right to think and to have access to information. These rights ensure a secure space for the individual to pursue their values and interests. Groups that monitor human rights in Kenya a Lawyers and Judges and other professionals including teachers. B Religious groups c Journalists The media-print and electronic .


These rights ensure a secure space for the individual to pursue their values and interests. Groups that monitor human rights in Kenya a Lawyers and Judges and other professionals including teachers. B Religious groups c Journalists The media-print and electronic . D The police force e Association and special commissions, e.g business associations, women groups, the Kenya National Human Rights and Equality Commission KNHREC , among others. F pressure groups Characteristics of human rights. A They are universal. Human rights apply equally to everyone by virtue of being a human being. B They are indivisible. One right cannot be applied if the other does not exist. They are inherent. C Incase circumstance demand they can be suspended. For example during war, or during disease outbreak like Ebola or other contagious diseases, one may be denied the right to freedom of movement. D Human rights have limitations. As people enjoy their rights, they should respect the rights of others. United Nations Charter on human rights. This is a document that contains the basic human rights to which every person by virtue of being a human being is entitled to. It also reaffirms the equality of the rights of all men and women. The Universal Declaration if Human Rights was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10th December 1948.. Member states that signed the document are supposed to publicize the declaration in their countries The basic human rights contained in the Charter include; 1. All human beings are born free and equal. 2. Everyone is entitled to all rights and freedoms set forth in the declaration without discrimination on basis of sex, race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, racial origin birth or any other status. 3. Everyone has a right to life, liberty and security. 4. No one should be held in servitude or slavery or perform forced labour. 5. Everyone has a right to recognition as a person before the law. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 217 6. Every person is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law. 7. Every person s dignity should be respected and protected. 8. Everyone has a right to nationality. One is free to change nationality. 9. No person will be subjected to physical or psychological torture, corporal punishment or cruel and inhuman treatment. 10. Everyone has a right to free movement and residence within the borders of each state. 11.


10. Everyone has a right to free movement and residence within the borders of each state. 11. Everyone has a right to ownership of property alone as well as in association with others. State cannot take away ones property without proper compensation. 12. Every citizen has a right to peaceful assembly and association. 13. Every citizen is free to make political choices, which includes the right to form, or participate in forming, a political party and to participate in the governing process of the country. 14. Every person has the right to the highest attainable standard of health, which includes the right to health care services, including reproductive health care. 15. Every person has the right to accessible and adequate housing, and to reasonable standards of sanitation. 16. Every person has the right to be free from hunger, and to have adequate food of acceptable quality. 17. Every person has the right to clean and safe water in adequate quantities. 18. Every person has the right to social security 19. Every person has the right to education. Elementary education shall be compulsory while technical and professional education should be made generally available. 20. Every person has the right to a clean and healthy environment. It is our duty to ensure that the environment is protected for the benefit of present and future generations. 21. Every person, whether individually or as a group, has freedom to manifest any religion or belief through worship. 22. An adult has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex, based on the free consent of the parties. Parties to such a union enjoy equal rights. 23. Every person should be subjected to an efficient, lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair administrative action. 24. Everyone has freedom of opinion and expression. 25. Everyone has a right to seek and enjoy, in other countries, asylum from persecution. The right is however enjoyed only for political reasons. 26. Everyone has a right to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal in the determination of one s rights and obligations. 27. Everyone has a right to protection of the law against interference or attacks against one s property, home or correspondence. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 218 28. Everyone has a right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and protection against unemployment. 29.


For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 218 28. Everyone has a right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and protection against unemployment. 29. Everyone has a right to leisure, which includes reasonable working hours and periodic holidays with pay.ght to freely participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts e.g drama, music, dance etc. 30. However every person has various duties to the community in which they live. 31. Freedom from torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. Importance of the UN Charter on human rights. A Protection of human rights, which is the core thing in the UN Charter, is important for the Establishment and maintenance of peace and security. Where there is violation of human rights, it becomes difficult to prevent conflict and maintain peace. B Respect for human rights is an important requirement for efficiency and effectiveness in governance. The principle of non-discrimination, principle of international human rights law, enables one to strive for more equitable societies even within the level of resources available. C Respect for human rights promotes development. National development strategies can only lead to tangible improvement in the lives of people if they have as their key objectives realization of economic, social and political rights. D The UN Declaration provides a guideline for collective action towards eradication of poverty. E The UN human rights mechanisms have given utmost attention to countering of terrorism as a way of protecting human rights. F A SOCIETY that observes respect for human rights reduces the chance of conflict outbreak. G The UN Charter on human rights is the foundation on which peace-making peacebuilding and peace-keeping is built. Any strategy to achieve peace anywhere is accompanied by strategies to uphold human rights like was the case in Yugoslavia. H In recognition of human rights, the UN has played a key role in giving humanitarian assistance to the people of different countries suffering from effects of natural disasters and other emergencies. I The UN Charter on Human rights promotes the rights of women and their empowerment by affirming the equal rights for women and fighting discrimination based on gender j The UN Charter champions the rights of vulnerable groups like the minority migrant workers, abused children, indigenous people and persons with disabilities. The Kenyan Bill of Rights This is a statement of human or civil rights in the constitution of Kenya. The Bill of Rights is covered in chapter four of the constitution of Kenya 2010 .


I The UN Charter on Human rights promotes the rights of women and their empowerment by affirming the equal rights for women and fighting discrimination based on gender j The UN Charter champions the rights of vulnerable groups like the minority migrant workers, abused children, indigenous people and persons with disabilities. The Kenyan Bill of Rights This is a statement of human or civil rights in the constitution of Kenya. The Bill of Rights is covered in chapter four of the constitution of Kenya 2010 . For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 219 Importance of the Kenyan Bill Of Rights a States that every individual has the right to life b It guarantees liberty to all citizens by forbidding enslavement, detention without trial etc. C It protects the individual from all forms of torture and inhuman treatment d It guarantees the protection of private property and allows Kenyans to own property anywhere in the country. E It protects individuals freedom of conscience and religion. F It guarantees the protection of the freedom of speech and expression g It gives Kenyans the right to move freely throughout the country and to reside in any part of the country. H It guarantees individuals against any form of discrimination on the basis of colour, creed, and gender. I It protects individual against arbitrary search, arrest and entry into one s property without his her consent Rights and fundamental freedoms contained in the Kenyan Bill of Rights. 1. Right to life. Life begins at conception and no child should be deprived of life deliberately. Abortion is not therefore permitted unless occasioned by the need for emergency treatment or life of the mother is in danger. People who attempt to commit suicide are also punishable on the strength of their right 2. Equality and freedom from discrimination Every person is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law. This means that both men and women are equal before the law. Any form of discrimination is illegal and is prohibited in the constitution. 3. Human dignity Every person s dignity should be respected and protected. One must not ridicule or embarrass other members of society. 4. Freedom and security of a person. This right protects a person from being detained without a good reason and without trial. No person will be subjected to physical or psychological torture, corporal punishment or cruel and inhuman treatment. 5. Freedom from slavery, servitude and forced labour. No one should be held in servitude or slavery or perform forced labour.


5. Freedom from slavery, servitude and forced labour. No one should be held in servitude or slavery or perform forced labour. Every employer should treat his or her employees with dignity and not to force them to work. 6. Right to privacy. Every person has a right NOT to have him or herself, his or her property searched, or his or her possessions seized. Not revealing a person s family or private affairs unnecessarily or private communications interfered with. 7. Right to assembly, demonstration, picketing and petition. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 220 Every citizen has a right to assemble and participate in peaceful demonstrations and even present petitions to public authorities. 8. Political rights Every citizen is free to make political choices, which includes the right to form, or participate in forming, a political party and to participate in the activities of, a political party. Every citizen has the right to free, fair and regular elections based on universal suffrage and the free expression of the will of the electors for any elective public body or office Every adult citizen has the right, without unreasonable restrictions, to be registered as a voter; to vote by secret ballot in any election or referendum and to be a candidate for public office, or office within a political party and, if elected, to hold office. 9. Freedom of movement and residence Citizens have a right to free movement and ownership of property in any part of the country. Anyone is also free to leave the country or enter and remain in the country 10. Economic and social rights Every person has the right to the highest attainable standard of health, which includes the right to health care services, including reproductive health care. Every person has the right to accessible and adequate housing, and to reasonable standards of sanitation. Every person has the right to be free from hunger, and to have adequate food of acceptable quality. Every person has the right to clean and safe water in adequate quantities. Every person has the right to social security. Every person has the right to education. A person shall not be denied emergency medical treatment. The State must provide appropriate social security to persons who are unable to support themselves and their dependants. 11.


Economic and social rights Every person has the right to the highest attainable standard of health, which includes the right to health care services, including reproductive health care. Every person has the right to accessible and adequate housing, and to reasonable standards of sanitation. Every person has the right to be free from hunger, and to have adequate food of acceptable quality. Every person has the right to clean and safe water in adequate quantities. Every person has the right to social security. Every person has the right to education. A person shall not be denied emergency medical treatment. The State must provide appropriate social security to persons who are unable to support themselves and their dependants. 11. Consumer rights Consumers have the right to goods and services of reasonable quality. Consumers have the right to the information necessary for them to gain full benefit from goods and services. Consumers have the right to the protection of their health, safety, and economic interests. Consumers have the right to compensation for loss or injury arising from defects in goods or services. 12. Right to fair labour practices Every worker has a right to fair labour practices like fair remuneration, reasonable working conditions, the right to join or practice in trade union activities and the right to go on strike .Every employer has a right to join an employers association and participate in its programmes and activities Responsibility. One must respect the right to fair labour practices of one s employees. Employees on the other hand must conduct themselves responsibly, even during strikes, to avoid causing physical injury to innocent people, or destroying property. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 221 13. Right to clean and healthy environment. Every person has the right to a clean and healthy environment. It is our duty to ensure that the environment is protected for the benefit of present and future generations. 14. Freedom of conscience, religion, belief and opinion. Every person, whether individually or as a group, has freedom to manifest any religion or belief through worship, practice, teaching or observance, including observance of day of worship. One cannot be denied employment or educational opportunity because of belonging to a particular religion or because of one s belief or religion. A person cannot be forced to engage in any act that goes against his or her belief or religion. 15. Freedom of expression. This guarantees all Kenyans the freedom to seek, receive or impart ideas or information. It also guarantees freedom of artistic creativity, academic freedom, and freedom to conduct scientific research. 16. Freedom of media.


It also guarantees freedom of artistic creativity, academic freedom, and freedom to conduct scientific research. 16. Freedom of media. The freedom and independence of the media is guaranteed. The state should not interfere with the media. 17. Access to information Every person has a right to access information held by the state, or by others, which may be required for the protection of any right or fundamental freedom. The state is expected to make public any important information affecting the nation. Every person has a right to the correction or deletion of untrue or misleading information that affects the person. 18. Freedom of association Every person has the right to form, join and participate in the activities of an association of any kind, provided that the association is not engaged in illegal activities, such as stealing or killing. 19. Protection of the right to property Every person is entitled to own property either individually or as a group, in any part of the country. However the property has to be legally acquired. This right provides all Kenyans a fair opportunity to invest in property and thus, prosper. 20. Right to language and culture Every person has the right to use a language, and embrace the culture of the person s choice. Every person has the right to form or join cultural groups. Every person is also protected from being forced to join any such group. Each linguistic group is free to use their language, practice their culture, and form associations and other organs of the civil society. It is unacceptable to force another person to perform, observe or undergo any cultural practice or rite. 21. Right to family An adult has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex, based on the free consent of the parties. Parties to such a union enjoy equal rights. Both parties have a responsibility For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 222 to respect the rights of their spouses during marriage and even in the event of its dissolution. It is wrong to deny one s spouse access to marital property after separation or divorce. The constitution also recognizes marriages conducted under traditional, religious, personal or family law. Marrying of underage persons and forced marriages are outlawed in the constitution. 22. Fair administrative action Every person should be subjected to an efficient, lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair administrative action. This promotes efficient administration in public offices. 23. Access to justice. Everybody should access justice and a reasonable fee will be charged to enhance this, if required.


23. Access to justice. Everybody should access justice and a reasonable fee will be charged to enhance this, if required. If this is not free, many people will not access justice which will continue to be a preserve of the rich people. 24. Right of arrested persons. An arrested person has; a The right to be informed promptly in a language that the person understands of the reason for arrest, the right to remain silent and he consequences of not remaining si lent. B The right to remain silent. The right of a person to choose to talk or to remain silent. C The right to communicate with an advocate and other persons whose assistance is necessary freedom of speech with all those who will assist him or her in the case. D The right of not being compelled to make any confession or admission that could be used in evidence against the person. E The right t be held separately from persons serving a sentence should not be held in prisons alongside those already convicted f To be brought to court as soon as reasonably possible, as but not later than twenty four hours after being arrested. G To be charged or be informed of the reason for the extension of detention or release, at the first court appearance. H To be released on bond or bail, on reasonable conditions, pending a charge or trial, unless there are compelling reasons as to why one cannot be released. 25. Fair hearing. Every person has the right to have any dispute that can be resolved through a court hearing be resolved in such a manner that will accord him or her fair and public hearing. An accused person has the following rights; a To be presumed innocent until proven otherwise. B To be informed of the charges. C To have adequate time and facilities to prepare a defence. D To a public trial before a court. E To have the trial begin and be concluded with few delays. F To be present when being tried. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 223 g To be represented by an advocate and be informed of this right immediately. Depending on the circumstances, the accused may be assigned an advocate by the state and at the state s expense. H To remain silent and not testify during the proceedings. I To be informed in advance, of the evidence the prosecution intends to present, and to have reasonable access to that evidence. J To challenge the evidence. K To refuse to give self-incriminating evidence.


I To be informed in advance, of the evidence the prosecution intends to present, and to have reasonable access to that evidence. J To challenge the evidence. K To refuse to give self-incriminating evidence. L To have the assistance of an interpreter if the accused person cannot understand the language used in the trial. M If convicted, to appeal, or apply for review by a higher court. 26. Rights of persons detained, held in custody or imprisoned. A person, who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned under the law, retains all rights and fundamental freedoms in the bill of rights. Except those that are impractical and inapplicable under the circumstances. A person who is detained or held in custody is entitled for an order Habeas Corpus- This is a law that states that a person who has been arrested should not be kept in prison longer than a particular period of time unless a judge in a court has decided that it is right. It is the right of the person who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned to be treated in a humane manner. Application of the Kenyan bill of rights to specific groups of people in Kenya Rights enjoyed by Children in Kenya A child refers to a young person from birth to full physical development. The term also refers to a person who has not attained the age of eighteen. The rights of children are contained in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, and International Agreement on the Rights of the Child put in place in 1990. The rights include; a Survival rights Every child has the right to a name and nationality from birth. Every child has the right to basic nutrition, shelter and health care. B Development rights Every child has the right to free and compulsory basic education. Every child has the right to parental care and protection, which includes equal responsibility of the mother and father to provide for the child, whether they are married to each other or not. C Right of protection Every child has the right to be protected from abuse, neglect, harmful cultural practices, all forms of violence, inhuman treatment and punishment, and hazardous or exploitative labour. Every child has the right not to be detained, except as a measure of last resort, and when detained, to be held for the shortest appropriate period of time.


Rights of Minorities and marginalized groups in Kenya The constitution specifies a marginalized community as; A community that because of its relatively small population has been unable to fully participate in the integrated social and economic life of Kenya as a whole. A traditional community that, out of need or desire to preserve its unique culture and identity from assimilation, has remained outside the integrated social and economic life of Kenya. An indigenous community that has retained maintained a traditional lifestyle and livelihood based on a hunter or gatherer economy. Pastoral persons and communities, whether nomadic or settled and because of their relative geographical location, have experienced only marginal participation in the integrated social and economic life of kenya as a whole. Rights of Minorities and marginalized groups a Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to participate and are represented in governance and other spheres of life. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 225 b Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to be provided special opportunities in educational and economic fields. C Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to be provided special opportunities for access to employment. D Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to develop their cultural values, languages and practices. E Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to reasonable access to water, health services and infrastructure. Rights of older members of society in Kenya a Right to fully participate in the affairs of society. B Right to pursue their personal development. C Right to live in dignity and respect and be free from abuse. D Right to receive reasonable care and assistance from their family and the State. The Kenya National Human Rights and Equality Commission This commission was entrenched in the Constitution of Kenya 2010 to replace the KNHRC. The commission constitutes atleast three but not more than nine members appointed by the president with the approval of the national assembly. Objectives; a To protect the sovereignty of the people. B To ensure secure observance by all state organs of democratic values and principles c To promote constitutionalism Functions of the Kenya National Human Rights and Equality Commission. A It has a duty to promote respect for human rights an d develop a culture of human rights in the republic. B A duty to promote protection and observance of human rights in public and private institutions. C It monitors, investigates and reports on the observance of human rights in all spheres of life in the republic, including observance by the national security organs.


A It has a duty to promote respect for human rights an d develop a culture of human rights in the republic. B A duty to promote protection and observance of human rights in public and private institutions. C It monitors, investigates and reports on the observance of human rights in all spheres of life in the republic, including observance by the national security organs. D It receives and investigates complaints about alleged abuses of human rights and takes steps to secure appropriate redress where human rights have been violated. E It acts as the principal organ of the state in ensuring compliance with obligations under treaties and conventions relating o human rights. F It investigates any conduct in state affairs, or any act or omission in pu blic administration in any sphere of government, which is alleged or suspected to be prejudicial or improper, or to result in any impropriety, or prejudice. G It investigates complaints about abuse of power, unfair treatment, manifest injustice or unlawful, oppressive, unfair or unresponsive official conduct. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 226 HISTORY FORM THREE NOTES 1. EUROPEAN INVASION AND THE PROCESS OF COLONIZATION OF AFRICA Introduction In the last Quarter of the 19th century, Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Belgium and Portugal were in Africa, competing for colonies to boost their social, economic and political standing. They convened the Berlin conference of 1884-1885 convened by Otto Von Bismarck, the Germany Chancellor where they shared Africa in Europe without regard to the inhabitants. This is what is termed the invasion of Africa. By 1914, apart from Liberia and Ethiopia, the rest of Africa had been colonized The scramble and partition of Africa Scramble It refers to the rushing for something. In the African situation, it meant the rush for and struggle by European powers to acquire various parts of Africa during the 19th century. Partition It refers to the sharing of something. In the African situation, it referred to the actual division of Africa by European powers during the Berlin conference of 1884 1885Methods used by Europeans to acquire colonies in Africa. 1 Signing of treaties; a Treaty signing with African leaders. The British signed the Maasai Agreements 1904 and 1911 , Buganda Agreement of 1900 and the Lewanika-Lochner treaty with Lozi.


D The Italians were defeated during their Ethiopian campaign, by Menelik II in the battle of Adowa in 1896. E The Portuguese forcefully established their rule over Angola, Guinea Bissau and Mozambique. 3 Use of missionaries as frontrunners. The Europeans used missionaries, carrying a bible in one hand and a gun in the other, who tried to convince the Africans to support the European goals. Missionaries manipulated local quarrels and took sides in a view to promote European occupation. For example, in the case of Buganda where we had religious conflicts between Protestants, Muslims, Catholics and Traditionalists. Sometimes the missionaries went to war against each other and against Africans. E.g the Franza-Ingeleza war of 1892 that pitted the Protestants British against the Catholics French . Fredrick Lugard s intervention on the side of Protestants set stage for the acquisition of Uganda by the British. In Bulozi, Father Francois Coillard convinced Lewanika of the benefits of British protection. In Nyasaland Malawi which was depicted as Livingstone s country, missionaries read role of Scottish missionaries shaped public opinion in favour of imperial control. 4 Treachery and Divide and rule policy The Europeans instigated inter-tribal wars causing some Africans to support them against warring communities. E.g. use of the Wanga against the Luo and the Luhya in Kenya, the Ndebele shona against the Lozi in Rhodesia. The Italians lied to Menelik II by signing a treaty of friendship but which was published in Italian version indicating that Ethiopia had agreed becoming an Italian protectorate. The Maasai agreement was written in a language that the Lenana never understood. 5 Use of company rule. The British and the Germans used chartered companies to acquire and rule their colonies. For example, the role played by the British South African Company of Cecil Rhodes, Imperial British East African Company of Sir William Mackinnon and the German East Africa Company of Carl Peters. 6 Luring enticements. The Europeans gave gifts like cloth, weapons tools, drinks etc to African chiefs like Lewanika of the Lozi and Mwanga of Buganda thus luring them into collaboration. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 228 7 Diplomatic skills.


6 Luring enticements. The Europeans gave gifts like cloth, weapons tools, drinks etc to African chiefs like Lewanika of the Lozi and Mwanga of Buganda thus luring them into collaboration. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 228 7 Diplomatic skills. This involved building relations with African leaders, which were later, used to acquire the areas. The British employed this method in Maasailand and Yorubaland. 8 A blend of diplomacy and force. The British for example initially signed treaties with the Ndebele Moffat and Rudd treaties , but they fought them during the Ndebele war of 1897. FACTORS THAT LED TO THE SCRAMBLE FOR COLONIES IN AFRICA Economic factors 1. The industrial revolution in Europe. A The revolution led to search for markets for European manufactured goods in Africa resulting in scramble for and partition. B The need for raw materials. The machines invented processed goods faster than use of hand. The Europeans came to Africa in search of raw materials like cotton, palm oil, copper and iron ore. C Cheap labour was also readily available in Africa after the abolition of slave trade. D There was desire by the entrepreneurs to invest excess capital gained from accumulation of profits from industrial investment. Africa provided an avenue for investment. E Industrial revolution led to improved transport system, which was necessary for effective colonization. F The military hardware manufactured during the revolution enabled Europeans to conquer African territories. G The discovery of medicine enabled the Europeans to survive the African conditions and protect themselves from diseases such as malaria, yellow fever etc. H Those who were rendered unemployed in Europe due to invention of machines had to move to Africa to assist in harnessing raw materials. I Industrial revolution led to intense rivalry in trade, which was projected, into Africa. 2. Speculation about the availability of deep pockets of minerals in Africa. Gold and Bronze had been items of trade in Africa for centuries. The discovery of Diamond at Kimberly in the 1860s and Gold in the 1870s precipitated their appetite for Africa more. Political reasons. 1. Unification of Germany after under Otto Von Bismarck after the FrancoPrussianwar of 1870-71. The rise of Germany upset the balance of power in Europe and there was need to rebalance out through acquisition of colonies in Africa.


1. Unification of Germany after under Otto Von Bismarck after the FrancoPrussianwar of 1870-71. The rise of Germany upset the balance of power in Europe and there was need to rebalance out through acquisition of colonies in Africa. France for example had to redeem her lost glory especially after the loss of mineral rich Alsace and Lorraine provinces by acquiring eight colonies in Africa. 2. The rise of Public opinion in Europe. There was growth of public support towards the acquisition of colonies. With the rise of democracy in European states in the 19th c, it was fatal for any government to ignore public opinion. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 229 a For example in 1882, due to public demand, the French assembly was compelled to ratify De Brazza s treaty with Chief Makoko thus creating a French colony in Congo. B German took over South-West Africa Namibia , Togo and Cameroon due to what Bismarck termed as public demand. C In Britain, the public demanded that Britain must maintain her position as the leading colonizing power by taking her share in Africa. 3. Militarism. Army officers in Europe favoured colonial expansionist wars to give them greater opportunities for glory or promotion. A For example, in Sudan, it was the military offers, in search of glory, and not the French government who directed the extent of French colonization. B British soldiers like Wolseley Kitchener supported the expansion of the British Empire in Africa. 4. The rise of Nationalism. In Europe, there was the rise of a general feeling of civilians that their nations should acquire overseas colonies for national prestige. The Germans began feeling they belonged to a superior race that must be shown by acquiring colonies in Africa. Strategic reasons 1. Construction of the Suez Canal. The Egyptian question . The construction of the Suez Canal, opened in 1869, promoted a link between Europe and Asia shortened the routes to Far East. It also promoted international trade. It also made Egypt gain some strategic importance to Europeans. The inability of Khedive Ishmael 1863-1879 to pay for the cost of the construction of the canal due to his extravagancy led to British full occupation of Egypt in 1882, being a major shareholder in the Anglo-Suez Company that owned the canal.


It also promoted international trade. It also made Egypt gain some strategic importance to Europeans. The inability of Khedive Ishmael 1863-1879 to pay for the cost of the construction of the canal due to his extravagancy led to British full occupation of Egypt in 1882, being a major shareholder in the Anglo-Suez Company that owned the canal. The dismayed French planned diversions of the Nile waters, and make Egypt a desert, after occupying territories to the south of Egypt. It was against the backdrop that Britain claimed Uganda source of the Nile in 1894, Kenya the gateway to Uganda in 1895 and Sudan where the Nile passes in 1898. 2. French activities in West Africa and the Congo The activities of France in Congo and West Africa, after loss of Egypt, through their Italian agent Savorgnan de Brazza in connection to acquisition of colonies alarmed other powers. This encouraged powers like Germany to join in the scramble and acquire Togo, Cameroon, Namibia and Tanganyika. 3. The personal activities of King Leopold II of Belgium. He endeavored to create a personal empire. In 1876, Leopold convened the Brussels Geographical Conference where he formed a business company, the International African Association comprising explorers and traders with a mission to civilize Africa, abolish slave trade and establish free trade. As a result of the activities of his agent, Henry Morton Stanley who created the Congo Free State, Leopold had established a personal empire in 1884 . For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 230 It was the activities of king Leopold leading to intense rivalry amongst European nations over Congo that led to the convening of the Berlin Conference in 1884. Social reasons 1. The work of Christian missionaries They created an atmosphere of friendship with Africans by giving those gifts like cloths and beer, introducing economic activities like farming, carpentry, clerical work, among Africans, that were important virtues in the process of colonization. Where they were in danger, they pressurized their home governments to protect them. The missionaries had direct contact with the people of the interior of Africa and they were front-runners who paved way for the colonialists through their works. They preached peace, love and hard work and hence calmed down the emotions of Africans towards the Europeans.


For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 231 THE PROCESS OF PARTITION The fore runners to the process of partitioning Africa were the early explorers, missionaries and traders. Their activities were succeeded by the making of treaties and agreements in various parts of Africa between trading companies and the locals. . For example, the Buganda Agreement, the Heligoland Treaty and the Berlin act of 18841885.In places where the Europeans employed diplomacy, they won the support of many Africans who collaborated with the intruders. The Europeans sometimes blended diplomacy with wars of conquest or use of force especially against the resisting communities. The partitioning boundaries were drawn along physical features like rivers, mountains, etc. The Berlin conference On 15th November 1884, Britain, Germany, France, Belgium, the USA, Portugal and Italy convened in Berlin to lay down the rules for the partition and eliminate conflicts amongst European nations. Africans, whose continent was being shared, were not represented in the conference The Berlin Conference of 1884-85, partitioned Africa into different spheres of influence without recourse to war. Terms of the Berlin act of 1884-1885. A That all signatories must declare their sphere of influence an area under each nation s occupation b That once an area is declared a sphere of influence, effective occupation must be established in the area through establishment of firm colonial infrastructures to be followed by colonial administration. C That any state, laying claim to any part of Africa must inform other interested parties in order to avoid future rivalry. D That any power acquiring territory in Africa must undertake to stamp out slave trade in favour of legitimate trade and safeguard African interests. E That if a European power claims a certain part of the African coast, the land in the interior next to the coast became hers. F That the Congo River and the Niger River basins were to be left free for any interested power to navigate. G The European powers vowed to protect and safeguard European interests in Africa irrespective of their nationality. Impacts of the Partition Political effects a Introduction of European administration minimized intertribal wars and civil strife. B It led to development of strong African leadership and beginning of state formation. C Colonial government structures inherited by most independent African states have continued to be models of governments in African countries. D Rise of African nationalism to fight colonialism led to the development of African political awareness.


B It led to development of strong African leadership and beginning of state formation. C Colonial government structures inherited by most independent African states have continued to be models of governments in African countries. D Rise of African nationalism to fight colonialism led to the development of African political awareness. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 232 e The Europeans gained fame, prestige and national glory by having colonial possessions. F Negatively, it led to collapse of African traditional political systems and leadership. G Use of divide and rule promoted ethnic disunity that continues to trouble Africa many years after independence. H Boundary creation split apart many African communities. For example, the Somali are found both in Kenya and in Somalia, the Maasai in Kenya and Tanzania and the Ewe in Ghana and Togo. I In some cases some communities whose cultures were incompatible found themselves bunched together. Social impacts a Through the protection offered to missionaries, it stimulated the spread of Christianity to various parts of Africa. B It led to development of urban centres. Some towns grew as centres of administration e.g. Nairobi and Machakos. Others grew as railway terminus e.g. Kisumu. C African welfare was boosted. Some African benefited from western education and health facilities introduced by the Europeans. D European languages were introduced in Africa. E Negatively, it created landlessness as European settlers appropriated African land. F The Africans adopted some negative aspects of western culture. G Many Africans lost their lives through resistance. Economic effects a There was construction of roads, railway and other forms of infrastructure, which helped to open up the interior. B Imperialization helped to widen market for African produce especially with the establishment of local industries. C Africans were exposed to European manufactured goods increase in essential commodities. D Partition speeded up the economic growth of European nations. E Negatively, forced labour and exploitation of African resources left many parts of Africa impoverished and underdeveloped. F Africans were exposed to heavy taxation and denial to participate in economic activities like farming, trade etc. AFRICAN REACTION TO EUROPEAN COLONIZATION. RESISTANCE Some communities were keen on defending their age-old and ancient political, social and economic institutions and viewed the arrival of the Whiteman with suspicion. Their leaders did not want to lose their power, wealth and sources of prestige. Others were militarily prepared for the Europeans.


They were equipped with European guns. The army was divided into two flanks, the infantry or sofa, with 30,000 to 35,000 men, and the cavalry or sere of 3,000 men. There was a third wing of 500 men forming specially trained bodyguards. In 1881, Samori extended the empire to the east as far as Sikasso in Mali to the west, up to the Futa Djallon Empire. Meanwhile, the French were extending eastwards from Futa Djalon while the Mandinka were extending westwards towards Kenyeran trading centre, Next to the rich Bure Gold fields. In 1882, at the height of the Mandinka empire, the Frenc h accused Samori Tour of refusing to withdraw from an important market center, Kenyeran his army had blockaded the market . They thus started war on him. His bid to obtain assistance from the British to deal with the French failed as the later were not willing to enter into conflict with the French. From 1882 to 1885, Samori fought the French and had to sign infamous Bisandugu treaty on 28th march 1886 and then 1887. Significance of the Bisandugu treaties 1886-1887 a To Toure, these were acts of delay the real confrontation that with the French that would come at an opportune time. B He hoped that by this treaty, he would reach out at the British for a friendship treaty to enable him secure trade routes from the north under Tieba of Sikasso. C The French on their part hoped to use the treaty to enable them to arrange the conquest of the Tukolor Empire. D The treaties put the Mandinka under brief French protection. In 1888, he took up arms again when the French reneged on the treaty by attempting to foster rebellion within his empire. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 237 In 1890, he reorganized the army and concluded a treaty with the British in Sierra Leone, where he obtained modern weapons. He now stressed defense and employed guerilla tactics. The Franco- Mandinka war 1891-1898 Causes of the Franco-Mandinka war 1891-1898 a Samori wanted to safeguard the independence and religion of his empire. Being a staunch Muslim, he could not tolerate non-Muslims on his land.


He now stressed defense and employed guerilla tactics. The Franco- Mandinka war 1891-1898 Causes of the Franco-Mandinka war 1891-1898 a Samori wanted to safeguard the independence and religion of his empire. Being a staunch Muslim, he could not tolerate non-Muslims on his land. B He was not ready willing to lose the rich Bure Mines to the French whether through diplomacy or warfare. C His empire was at that time enjoying military and economic superiority. The French incursion was merely a threat to his territorial expansion that was to be fought at all costs. D His participation in trade had enabled him to acquire modern arms thus enabling him to build an equipped and well trained army which did not fear the encounter French. He even had facilities for arms repair. E His scheme to play off the British against the French, between 1882 and 1889, had failed. This upset him and therefore left him only with the fighting option. F The activities of the French of selling arms to his enemies such as Tieba of Sikasso were viewed by Samori as an act to weaken the Mandinka dominance. Course of the franco-mandinka war. Samori waged a seven year war against France whose army was led by Major Archinard. In 1891, with his improved weaponry and reorganized army, he defeated the French. In 1892, French forces overran the major centers of the Mandinka Empire, leaving death and destruction in their wake. In 1894, the French assembled all their troops in western Sudan Senegal, Mali, Niger, etc to fight Samori. Between 1893 and 1898, Samori s army retreated eastward, toward the Bandama and Como, resorted to the scorched earth tactic, destroying every piece of land he evacuated. He moved his capital east from Bisandugu to Dabakala, thus creating a second empire in 1893. This enabled him to delay the French. He formed a second empire, and moved his capital to Kong, in upper Cote d Ivoire. Disadvantages of Samori s second empire a He was cut off from Freetown where he used to buy firearms. B He was at war with the communities, which he had attacked in his expansionist wars. C His southern frontier was open to French attacks from the Ivory Coast.


Disadvantages of Samori s second empire a He was cut off from Freetown where he used to buy firearms. B He was at war with the communities, which he had attacked in his expansionist wars. C His southern frontier was open to French attacks from the Ivory Coast. D At his new empire, Samore was cut off from his gold mines at Bure thus; he had no wealth to keep his army running. E The occupation of the Asante Empire by the British in 1896 meant that enemies from all corners surrounded Samori Toure. In 1898, Samori, forced to fight a total war against innumerable odds like famine and desertion that weakened his forces, was captured on September 29, 1898, in his camp in For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 238 Gu l mou at the town of Sikasso in present-day C te d Ivoire and exiled to Ndjol , Gabon, where he died of pneumonia on June 2, 1900. Factors that aided Samori Toure in offering a protracted resistance to the Europeans a He had established military workshops with a trained cadre of artisans whom he used to repair and manufacture his own weapons. This guaranteed regular supply of weapons during the resistance. B He himself was a courageous fighter, a greater organizer and a military tactician and he personally commanded his army on the battlefield. C His adoption of the Scorched Earth Policy as he mobilized the entire population to retreat left the French to starve and delay their advance. D The success witnessed in trade enabled him to acquire guns and horses from the north, which were important in the resistance. E Through trade and subsequent tribute collection, he obtained adequate wealth, which he used to maintain a large army. F He had a large strong and well-organized army of 35,000 men, which was a formidable force for the French. G He used diplomacy in dealing with the French to buy time to reorganize and strengthen his army, and to negotiate with the British in Sierra Leone to guarantee regular supply of guns. H French soldiers were ignorant of the strange land they were fighting in and were faced with further problem of tropical disease. I Some of his soldiers had served in the French colonial army and were thus familiar with the French tactics.


G He used diplomacy in dealing with the French to buy time to reorganize and strengthen his army, and to negotiate with the British in Sierra Leone to guarantee regular supply of guns. H French soldiers were ignorant of the strange land they were fighting in and were faced with further problem of tropical disease. I Some of his soldiers had served in the French colonial army and were thus familiar with the French tactics. J He used Mandinka nationalism and Islam to unify the army. Many of Samori s soldiers believed that they were fighting a Jihad holy war and therefore fought with determination. Why samori was finally defeated. A Since his army and community were constantly on the move, they could not engage in any gainful economic activity to replenish their supplies. B The abandoning of the rich Bure Gold reserves as Samori retreated meant he had lost an important source of revenue that was initially used to sustain the army. C When he moved to his second empire, He was cut off from Freetown where he used to buy firearms. D Samori failed to get any support from other African societies due to lack of unity. Ahmed Seku of Tukolor and Tieba of Sikasso chose to rather assist the French than support Samori. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 239 e His second empire was open to attack from all sides by either the British or the French, making it difficult to defend. F The French had superior weapons and better means to re-equip their stores. They were also determined to defeat samori to set up an overseas colonial empire. G The use of the scorched earth policy was resented by the civilians since it left them with nothing after destruction. It thus starred up local resistance. H Even within his own empire, there was no total unity. The non-Mandinka communities and non-Muslims in the empire who had felt mistreated during his reign supported the French. I The refusal by the British to assist Samori dented his hopes of getting a European ally against the French. J Samori s retreat to Liberia was blocked and his capital besieged. He had to surrender to the French. The Ndebele Resistance Background The Ndebele were descendants of Nguni conquerors from South Africa fleeing from the mfecane wars who occupied what is now Matabeleland.


J Samori s retreat to Liberia was blocked and his capital besieged. He had to surrender to the French. The Ndebele Resistance Background The Ndebele were descendants of Nguni conquerors from South Africa fleeing from the mfecane wars who occupied what is now Matabeleland. Mzilikazi Ndebele King opened the door for the London Missionary Society led by Robert Moffat, who settled in Matabeleland in 1859. They assisted him in repairing his guns, inoculating cattle, writing and interpreting letters and providing medical care to the sick. Hehowever had little interest in Foreigners and even had those whose who accepted missionary influence killed. Mzilikazi died in 1868 and his son Lobengula took over. Lobengula was the Ndebele king at the outbreak of the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893. He went to great lengths to appease the increasingly aggressive British imperialists from the South, Portuguese invasion from Angola and Mozambique and Germans from the south west. He used his diplomatic skills to buy time before engaging in war with the British. He even tried to pit one European nation against the other the Boers and the British . He in 1870 had granted a mining concession to Thomas Baines of Durban Gold Mining Co. in order to diffuse white intervention. In 1888, Lobengula signed the Moffat treat y which stated that he was not to sign any other treaty with other European groups without British permission. Rhodes sent his partner and agent Charles Rudd to compel Lobengula to acquiesce to the Rudd mining Concession- a verbal agreement between Lobengula and BSA Co granting the company a mining monopoly in Matabeleland. In return, he was to get a gunboat on River Zambezi or 500 sterling ponds, a monthly salary of 100 sterling pounds, 1000 rifles and 100,000 cartridges. Lobengula s conditions for concession were not incorporated in the final text. When the terms of the treaty were interpreted to him, he learned that he had been tricked into surrendering his kingdom to Europeans. In 1889, he repudiated the treaty and sent a fruitless delegation of Indunas Motshede and Babiyance to London to meet Queen Victoria.


In return, he was to get a gunboat on River Zambezi or 500 sterling ponds, a monthly salary of 100 sterling pounds, 1000 rifles and 100,000 cartridges. Lobengula s conditions for concession were not incorporated in the final text. When the terms of the treaty were interpreted to him, he learned that he had been tricked into surrendering his kingdom to Europeans. In 1889, he repudiated the treaty and sent a fruitless delegation of Indunas Motshede and Babiyance to London to meet Queen Victoria. Despite the Ndebele king's repeal of the concession, Rhodes, supported by the British crown, enacted a charter of the newly created British South Africa For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 240 Company investing it with an array of rights: the right to ma.ke treaties, to pass laws and to subject the natives to its police force, as well as to make grants of minerals and land to white settlers. Lobengula was thus pushed into reluctant resistance by white greedy rapacity. Causes of the 1893 Ndebele war. 1. The Ndebele detested the treachery used by the British in compelling Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession 2. British occupation of Matabeleland had ended Ndebele powers over the shona whom they always raided for cattle and women. 3. The British acts of provocation inciting the Shona to raid the Ndebele for cattle . When the Ndebele chose to attack the shona, the British would then fight them under the pretext of protecting their interests in Mashonaland. 4. The attempt by the Ndebele indunas to punish some shona who disobeyed King Lobengula became the immediate cause. Course of the war. The war broke out in October 1893. The British army was led by Dr.Starr Jameson and comprised the shona police and other mercenaries from South Africa. At that time, the Ndebele had been weakened by smallpox and inferior weapons leading to little confrontation between them and the British. Lobengula chose to evacuate his people towards Northern Rhodesia. Atthe two battles of Shangani River and Mbembezi. The Ndebele were defeated by superior European gun-fire. Lobengula finally fled to Bulawayo where he died in 1894.


Atthe two battles of Shangani River and Mbembezi. The Ndebele were defeated by superior European gun-fire. Lobengula finally fled to Bulawayo where he died in 1894. The conquerors took advantage of the natives' inner divisions, with people of the low castes remaining passive and even some traitors helping the invaders. The aftermath of the British conquest in Zimbabwe was that cattle were seized from the natives and their land taken. Even the for the small plots that were left to them, Africans were often forcibly prevented from ploughing and sowing, since they were subjected to tax-collection and coerced labour in whiteowned farms. The Ndebele were pushed to the reserves of Gwaai and Shangani. Second Matabele War the Chimurenga war 1896-1897 The war of liberation which was dubbed Chimurenga , or the Second Matabele War was a fulfillment of prophesy of a great Shona spirit, Mbuya Nehanda, sister of the great Shona prophet Chaminuka. Mlimo, the Ndebele spiritual leader is in fact credited with fomenting the Second Ndebele War. He convinced the Ndebele that the White settlers were responsible for the drought, locust plagues and the cattle disease rinderpest ravaging the country at the time. Causes of the Chimurenga war a The war broke out because the Shona and the Ndebele feared disruption of their ageold and valued trade and trade routes. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 241 b They fought for economic and trade independence. The company had stopped shona Gold and ivory trade with the Portuguese and forced them to trade only with the company only and at low exchange rates. C They were fighting against land alienation. The BSA Company had alienated the Ndebele land and pushed them to the Gwaai and Shangani reserves that had no water and were infested with tsetseflies. D The war eroded the Ndebele traditional authority. When Lobengula s sons were sent to South Africa by Rhodes for education, they were denied chance of succeeding their father. E They detested the removal of the rights of chiefs to allocate land.


D The war eroded the Ndebele traditional authority. When Lobengula s sons were sent to South Africa by Rhodes for education, they were denied chance of succeeding their father. E They detested the removal of the rights of chiefs to allocate land. The British ruined the regimental system and refused to recognize the power of the indunas and Ndebele laws. F The British began to assume the rights to punish the subjects on behalf of the chiefs. Sometimes even the chiefs were also punished. E.g, Chief Moghabi s village was burnt. G They revolted against taxation which was an interference with their economic independence. The hut tax, introduced in 1894 was collected with much brutality. H The Ndebele were not pleased with the recruitment of the shona in the police force. They felt humiliated as the shona took the chance to revenge for the many years of oppression. I They resented the general brutality of the whites when dealing with the Africans, like threatening the black people with punishment just before pay, to cause them to run away. J They wanted the removal of the policy of forced labour on European mines and farmswhere workers operated under deplorable conditions, often whipped with syambok whip and worked for long hours without chance to engage in activities of their choice. K The company disregarded the Ndebele customs especially the class system. They treated everybody equally, including the Holi who were traditionally slaves to the Ndebele aristocrats. The traditional leaders were sometimes flogged before their subjects. L The confiscation, by the company, of 250,000 head of cattle in 1893 from the Ndebele. Leaving them with only 50,000 affected by cattle disease. The rights to raid the shona for cattle was also denied. M The people were resented more by the Natural calamities that continued to afflict them and which religious mediums like Mlimo blamed on the presence of the whites. N The influence of the Mwari cult leaders who urged people to resist with an assurance of victory against the British and immunity against the European bullets. Course of the war. Mlimo's call to battle happened at a time when the BSA Co's Administrator General Matabeleland, Leander Starr Jameson, had sent most of his troops to fight the Transvaal Republic in the ill-fated Jameson Raid in Dec.


N The influence of the Mwari cult leaders who urged people to resist with an assurance of victory against the British and immunity against the European bullets. Course of the war. Mlimo's call to battle happened at a time when the BSA Co's Administrator General Matabeleland, Leander Starr Jameson, had sent most of his troops to fight the Transvaal Republic in the ill-fated Jameson Raid in Dec. 1995 leaving the country's defenses in disarray. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 242 War in Matabeleland. On 29th March 1896, the Ndebele High Priest Umlugulu, with senior indunas, organized a ceremony to install Umfezela as Lobengula s successor. On that day, The Ndebele rebels killed the whites on their farms as they found them by surprise. They also killed African policemen in the British force. The European settlers took refuge in fortified camps in Bulawayo, Gwelo, Belingwe and Mangwe. The British immediately sent troops to suppress the Ndebele and the Shona, but it cost the lives of many settlers, Ndebele, and Shona alike. The Matabele military defiance ended only when Burnham found and assassinated Mlimo, thanks to a Zulu informant. The Ndebele finally agreed to peace talks with Rhodes during which Rhodes agreed to disband the shona police and give the Ndebele headmen some powers as indunas. The War in Mashonaland On 17 June 1896, the Hwata dynasty at Mazowe attacked the Alice Mine. They succeeded in driving away the British settlers from their lands on 20 June 1896. In the same month, Mashaykuma, working with the local spiritual leader Kagubi, the Zezuru Shona people in killing a British farmer Norton and his wife at Porta Farm in Norton. With the war in Matabeleland ending in October 1897, Gen. Carrington was able to concentrate his forces on Mashonaland. Nehanda Nyakasikana and Kagubi Gumboreshumba were captured and executed in 1898, but Mkwati, a priest of the Mwari shrine, was never captured and died in Mutoko.


With the war in Matabeleland ending in October 1897, Gen. Carrington was able to concentrate his forces on Mashonaland. Nehanda Nyakasikana and Kagubi Gumboreshumba were captured and executed in 1898, but Mkwati, a priest of the Mwari shrine, was never captured and died in Mutoko. Traditional leaders played a major role in the rebellion, notably Chief Mashayamombe, who led resistance in Mhondoro, Gwabayana, Makoni, Mapondera, Mangwende and Seke. Role of religion in the organization of the S hona Ndebele resistance a Religion united the Shona and Ndebele who had hitherto been bitter rivals. The two communities entered a common plan of action. B It boosted and sustained the morale of the masses and gave them spiritual strength to fight a might force. C Religion was used as a base of mass action. It provided the resistance with a common ideology. Much of the ideology used was derived from Umlugulu, the chief priest of the Ndebele Nyamanda, Lobengula s eldest son and Mlimo, the medium of Mwari Cult d Religious leaders provided leadership to the war against white aggressors who were considered immoral and brutal. E The Mwari Cult provided an important organization link between the Ndebele and shona since it was widespread. F The most important representatives of the Mwari Cult were Mkwati and Singinyamatse who were the backbone of the spiritual unity of the Ndebele. Why the Ndebele and shona were defeated a Disunity among Africans and between Shona and Ndebele. They fought on different fronts. Even some African communities supported the British against the shona and Ndebele. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 243 b The Ndebele social class lacked unity of purpose. The former aristocrats fought on their own while the former slave classes chose to even cooperate with the British. C British soldiers were well trained as compared to African soldiers. They also got reinforcement from Botswana and South Africa. D The arrest and execution of African leaders like Nehanda, Kagubi and Singinyamatse demoralized the people. E The British had superior weapons as compared to African inferior weapons.