D Establishment of industries in urban centres led to pollution of the environment, which affected the health of the inhabitants. E There was rampant unemployment as urban centres could not cope with the large influx of labourers and increased competition for the available jobs f Many unemployed people in urban areas got involved in social vices crimes such as drug abuse, alcoholism and promiscuity, due to desperation and poverty. G Africans working in urban centres received low wages with employers taking advantage of the high supply of labour, which affected their standards of living. H The mass rural-urban migration brought about intensification of migration regulations to control the numbers of African migrants. The Kipande system became stricter. I Economic activities in the rural areas were disrupted by the absence of men who had moved to urban areas. Women took up men s roles. EDUCATION AND HEALTH Education. Formal education in colonial Kenya was provided by four groups; The Christian Missionaries. The Colonial government through local councils. The Africans themselves. Community organizations Asians Major milestones in the development of education in Kenya during the colonial period. Initially, the provision of education was the preserve of the missionaries. For example, the Church Missionary Society CMS pioneered by setting up a school at Rabai in 1844 and anotherKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 61 in Mombasa in 1873. Features of Missionary education a It was elementary. The subjects taught included religion, writing, reading, reading, hygiene and arithmetic. B It was industrial and technical in approach, aiming at training Africans to be carpenters, masons, agricultural assistants and shoe repairers. C It was denominational and aimed at inculcating doctrines of a particular church in the learners. Objectives of Missionary education. A To impart in the Africans Agricultural Skills in order to promote settler farming. B To give the Africans basic technical skills to improve their industrial knowledge. C To train some Africans as Catechists to enhance the spread of Christianity. D To offer Africans basic literacy and numeracy to read the bible and do simple arithmetic. Education development in Kenya in the period between 1904 and 1963 was facilitated by the following factors; 1 The WWI ex-soldiers experiences which convinced them of the advantage of higher education. 2 Increase in African nationalism that demanded for better education for Africans.


D To offer Africans basic literacy and numeracy to read the bible and do simple arithmetic. Education development in Kenya in the period between 1904 and 1963 was facilitated by the following factors; 1 The WWI ex-soldiers experiences which convinced them of the advantage of higher education. 2 Increase in African nationalism that demanded for better education for Africans. 3 The need to produce better and more skilled manpower for the future independent Kenya. 4 Primary education had produced qualified children who needed higher education. In 1911, the colonial government agreed to share the burden of providing education to Africans with the missionaries. In 1913, the first Government African School was started at Machakos. It became a centre for Technical and Teacher training. In 1918, the education commission made the following far-reaching recommendations to the government in line with the Fraser Commission report of 1908 which had recommended a racially segregated system of education; a Provision of technical education to Africans. B Maintenance of racially segregated Schools. C More cooperation between the colonial government and the missionaries. D Appeals for grants-in-aid for mission schools. In 1924, a commission came to Kenya the Phelps Stokes Commission to look into the education situation. It recommended that Africans should receive Practical AgriculturalOriented Education suitable for rural areas. Other recommendations included; a That there should be a uniform system of education in all government and missionary schools. B That sufficient training for teachers and related personnel should be enhanced by establishing colleges. C That schools should be built in the rural areas. This was done through the education ordinance of 1924. Due to its recommendations, the Native Industrial Training Centre was built at Kabete in 1924 and Jeanes School, Kabete 1925 for offering technical and industrial education. Other schools were started later at Kapsabet, Kajiado, Tambach, Kitui, Kwale, Kabianga and Kapenguria. The 1924 Education Ordinance created an advisory committee on African education. TheKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 62 representation to the committee was missionaries, colonial officials and settlers. The same year, more schools were built with the assistance of the newly formed Local Native Councils. In 1931, another Education Ordinance helped in the establishment of Kakamega GAS In 1932, Kisii GAS in 1934, and Kabianga.


In 1949, the Beecher Committee was instituted to look into African education From 1961, Asian and African pupils begun to join European schools. Provision of elementary education by Africans was pioneered by John Owalo of the Nomiya Luo Mission in 1910. University Education. Africans in Kenya got opportunity for university education at Makerere which was established in 1922 initially as a technical college and became an affiliate of the university of London on 1949.. In 1954, the Royal Technical College, Nairobi began to offer higher education and became an affiliate of the university of London in 1959 to offer the first degree courses in 1961 when it became known as the royal college. Community based education. This was done mainly by Asian families of Ismaili and Arya Samaj for the Indian traders in urban areas. Allidina Visram, A wealthy man, also established centres of higher education. African Role in educational provision. Africans began their own schools for the following reasons; a They wanted to protect certain cultural practices like feral circumcision and polygamy. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 63 b They wanted to access higher education, since the government and missionaries were only offering them technical and industrial education, so that to be able to compete for the white-collar jobs with other races. C They would also use the schools as a forum to air their grievances and to create political awareness in their community. The Nomiya Luo Mission built several schools in Nyanza between 1908 and 1910. Other schools were built in Gem-Luanda region between 1913 and 1918 and in central Kenya in 1923 in Kiambu. In 1934, the Kikuyu Independent Schools Association KISA and the Kikuyu Karinga Education Association founded more schools In 1938, Githunguri Teacher Training College had been established under Mbiyu Koinange. Health. Developments in provision of health services in colonial Kenya. Initially, just like in the case of education, the Christian missionaries were concerned with provision of health services in colonial Kenya. The colonial government was majorly concerned with eradication of plague, malaria and sleeping disease which the Pioneer European settlers suffered from. Preventive medicine was later introduced to help stop various infections of killer diseases.


Initially, just like in the case of education, the Christian missionaries were concerned with provision of health services in colonial Kenya. The colonial government was majorly concerned with eradication of plague, malaria and sleeping disease which the Pioneer European settlers suffered from. Preventive medicine was later introduced to help stop various infections of killer diseases. The Church of Scotland Mission and the Church Missionary Society soon opened medical facilities in Kikuyu 1902 , Kaimosi 1903 , Kaloleni 1904 and Maseno 1905 . Dr, Arthur, a missionary and pioneer doctor, put up the Thogoto Mission Hospital in 1907 and the facility exists prominently upto today as the Kikuyu Eye Unit Hospital and Kikuyu Rehabilitation Centre. Objectives of the Health centres. A To eradicate diseases such as smallpox, malaria and sleeping sickness. B To train medical personnel to handle western medicine. C To improve health and hygiene for Africans and Asians in towns where they lived in overcrowded areas lacking in sanitary facilities. Africans began being trained in the provision of emergence health services during the first war. The East African Medical Corps was formed . Between 1919 1922, missionaries began to train Africans as Medical Dressers and Dispensers. After the opening of the Alliance medical college in 1920 and the establishment of a Medical training centre under the Nurses and Midwives Ordinance many African school leavers trained as laboratory and pharmacy assistants. A Public Health Ordinance was passed in 1921 giving the Medical Department powers to institute measures for the control of malaria and prevent communicable diseases. As a follow up to the 1921 Ordinance, new health units were established in the four different African reserves. The Rural Dispensary System was established to supplement the missionary efforts in provision of healthcare. Health centres were built in rural areas as part of the colonial government efforts to improve health facilities. After 1945, the Development and Research Authority DARA gave 47,000 sterling pounds for health care and improvement of health services. In 1949, the Bureau of Medical Research was set up as an agency of the East African HighKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 64 Commission. In 1950 King George IV hospital today the Kenyatta National Hospital was started as a hospital for Africans and in 1951, it started training female nurses.


After 1945, the Development and Research Authority DARA gave 47,000 sterling pounds for health care and improvement of health services. In 1949, the Bureau of Medical Research was set up as an agency of the East African HighKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 64 Commission. In 1950 King George IV hospital today the Kenyatta National Hospital was started as a hospital for Africans and in 1951, it started training female nurses. By 1962, there were over 100 rural health centres in the country. Role of Africans in Health Provision. Africans were more pre-occupied with superstitions and over-reliance on traditional medicine which negated their participation in provision healthcare.. The traditional medicinemen were dismissed by missionaries despite their wealthy knowledge on herbal Medicine. Today, many people rely on traditional herbalists to compliment healthcare provision. POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN KENYA 1919-1963 Early Political Organizations In Kenya Upto 1939. African participation in the First World War contributed to rapid political developments in Kenya in the following ways; a When many African from different communities and countries met, they realized that they shared numerous interests and problems which necessitated political unity. B The Africans disapproval of the Whiteman s immortality during the war, as he could also get wounded, die and suffer like them. This motivated them to strive for equal rights when they came back. C The introduction of many unfair measures after the war made their lives difficult. For example, governor Northey introduced the Soldier settlement scheme in 1919 to settle British ex-soldiers while African ex-soldiers got a raw deal. Other factors for the rise of early political organizations included; a The introduction of the Kipande system in 1920 which was used to force Africans to provide labour for the European settlers. B The replacement of the Indian Rupee with the shilling in 1921 meant that those in possession of the rupee had valueless money at a short notice. C The reduction of African wages and the increase in hut tax and poll tax in 1920 from 10 to 16 shillings. D The change of status of Kenya from a protectorate to a colony in 1920 which dawned on the Africans that the Whiteman was here to stay unless this move was fought.


B The replacement of the Indian Rupee with the shilling in 1921 meant that those in possession of the rupee had valueless money at a short notice. C The reduction of African wages and the increase in hut tax and poll tax in 1920 from 10 to 16 shillings. D The change of status of Kenya from a protectorate to a colony in 1920 which dawned on the Africans that the Whiteman was here to stay unless this move was fought. Kikuyu Association This was the first political organization in Kenya. It was founded in 1920 by Loyalist Kikuyu chiefs, concerned about the continued grabbing of African land for European settlement. They also complained about the planned reduction of African wages after the replacement of the rupee with the shilling, the kipande system which they equated to slavery. The patron was Paramount Chief Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu and Chief Koinange wa Mbiyu was the president. The secretary was I.M.Ishmael. Other members were Josiah Njonjo, Philip Karanja, Mathew Njoroge and Waweru wa Mahui. The Association, being made of loyalist chiefs, was never aggressive in its demands. The members therefore failed to get any meaningful concessions from the government. Later, Harry Thuku and Abdalla Tairara joined the association together with other Christian converts who were labourers, colonial house servants and clerks in Nairobi and central Kenya. When Thuku tried to introduce radicalism in the Association, he was forced to decamp on 7thKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 65 June 1921 and founded the Young Kikuyu Association. The East African Association. It began off as Young Kikuyu Association YKA in 1921 having been inspired by the Young Buganda Association in Uganda. Its founders included Harry Thuku, Abdalla Tairara, Mwalimu Hamisi and Muhamed Sheikh. Harry Thuku, the leading founder of this association was a mission educated elite who was working as a telephone operator in Nairobi. He became dissatisfied with the nonaggressiveness of the Kikuyu Association which was dominated by loyalist chiefs, in pressing the colonial government for Africans demands. YKA being very aggressive demanded; The return of African land. Better working conditions for Africans.


He became dissatisfied with the nonaggressiveness of the Kikuyu Association which was dominated by loyalist chiefs, in pressing the colonial government for Africans demands. YKA being very aggressive demanded; The return of African land. Better working conditions for Africans. Reduction of taxes. Withdrawal of Kipande system which had been introduced in 1920. Increase in wages. YKA incorporated other ethnic community members thus necessitating it to change the name to the East African Association in July 1921. The officials included Harry Thuku Chairman George Samuel Okoth, Abdalla Tairara, Kibwana Kambo, Jesse Kang ethe, Z. K. Sentongo from Uganda, Maitei ole Mootian, Molanket ole Sempele from Tanzania, James Mwanthi and Muhamed Sheikh. EAA became a very popular association in the 1920s attracting huge crowd in its meetings. Grievances of the East African Association They were demanding for the removal of the status of Kenya as a colonial territory. They were demanding for a common roll for all in the legislative council elections. They wanted the return of the alienated land, back to African owners. They were opposed to forced labour. They wanted more educational facilities and opportunities for Africans. They were demanding that all labour in urban areas be paid fair wages. They wanted the compulsory selling of cattle be stopped. Removal of Kipande System. Protested European domination of government. Wanted hut tax that was exclusively paid by Africans abolished. Due to the radical approach that was adopted by Harry Thuku, the colonial Governor had him arrested on 15th March 1922 and detained at the Kingsway Police Station now Nairobi Central Police Station . On 16th March 1922, a Kikuyu Woman, Muthoni Nyanjiru, challenged the African men to violence demanding the release of Thuku. More than 21 people including Muthoni Nyanjiru, were killed when the police opened fire on the over 1000 people who were surging forward. Harry Thuku was deported to Kisimayu. His colleagues Waiganjo and Mugekenji were banished to Lamu as EAA was banned. Consequences of Harry Thuku s arrest.


Harry Thuku was deported to Kisimayu. His colleagues Waiganjo and Mugekenji were banished to Lamu as EAA was banned. Consequences of Harry Thuku s arrest. A The political parties that succeeded the EAA continued using even more radical approach when they realized that the colonial government was determined to continue using Iron Rule in Kenya. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 66 b Governor Edward Northey was recalled to London by the then Colonial Secretary, Sir Winston Churchill due to the way he mishandled the Thuku affair. C The colonial government did not allow formation of any other countrywide political Associations among Africans until 1945. D Thuku became the undisputed flag-bearer of Kenyan Nationalism prior to formation of later political parties. The kikuyu central association. When EAA was banned, its former officials Joseph Kang ethe and Jesse Kariuki founded the Kikuyu central Association. It was formed in 1924 at Kahuhia, Fort Hall with Kang ethe becoming the president and Henry Gichuru, secretary. Job Muchuchu Treasurer , James Beauttah secretary-general and Jesse Kariuki vice-president . All these were extremist politicians whose activities were closely monitored by the government. Grievances of the Kikuyu Central Association. They were demanding for the removal of the 1915 Crown Land Ordinance that made Africans mere tenants and not real owners of their land. They were demanding for African representation in the Legislative Council. They were opposed to forced labour. They wanted free primary education as opposed to the colonial education system. Establishment of a secondary school, training facility for hospital workers and a school for girls. Removal of kipande system. They demanded that all colonial laws be translated into Gikuyu Language so that all members of the community could understand them. They demanded for the appointment of a well-educated Paramount Chief elected by the majority of the Agikuyu. Wanted hut tax abolished and other taxes reduced They advocated for the growing of coffee and other cash crops by Africans. To work towards the restoration of alienated African land. To pressurize the colonial government to abolish racial segregation. Respect of African culture customs e.g. Circumcision polygamy Agitating release of political prisoners e.g. Harry Thuku.


Respect of African culture customs e.g. Circumcision polygamy Agitating release of political prisoners e.g. Harry Thuku. By 1925, KCA had attracted membership from all large urban centres in Kenya and the Kikuyu squatters in the Rift Valley. They presented their demands to Governor Grigg when he visited Fort Hall in 1925. In 1927, KCA relocated its headquarters from Murang a to Nairobi in order to link up with other Kenyan elites. In 1928, Jomo Kenyatta became its Secretary- General, taking over from James Beauttah who had been transferred from Nairobi in an act of sabotage by the government. Kenyatta started the Association newspaper, Muigwithania which was instrumental in reviving the cultural values of the Agikuyu. When the Hilton Young Commission was formed in 1927 to look into the question of the federation of Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika, KCA through Jomo Kenyatta presented the following demands to it; Introduction of free primary education for Africans. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 67 Provision of secondary and higher education for Africans. Abolition of kipande system Appointment of Africans to LEGCO Release of Harry Thuku Giving of Title Deeds to Africans as a guarantee against any further land alienation. Rejection of the proposed East Africa Federation KCA championed female circumcision arguing that it was a beautiful cultural practice which eradicated prostitution in the community. When the Church of Scotland Mission, African inland Mission and CMS expelled all sympathizers with the practice from their missions, KCA responded by leading the pack in the beginning of independent schools and churches. KCA sent Jomo Kenyatta, accompanied by Parmenas Mukiri, to present Agikuyu grievances in 1929 to the colonial office in London. It also helped kikuyu elders in preparing evidence to the Kenya Land Commission in 1931. Rivalry for power within the KCA between 1931 and 1938 nearly rocked the association. The Association was banned in 1940 alongside others. Kavirondo Tax Payers and Welfare Association. It started as Young Kavirondo Association YKA in December 1921 at a Baraza held in Ludha, central Nyanza, by mission educated Luo and Luhyia men.


The Association was banned in 1940 alongside others. Kavirondo Tax Payers and Welfare Association. It started as Young Kavirondo Association YKA in December 1921 at a Baraza held in Ludha, central Nyanza, by mission educated Luo and Luhyia men. The meeting was meant to discuss issues affecting African communities. The official of the Association were Jonathan Okwiri chairman , Simon Nyende Treasurer , Benjamin Owuor secretary , Rueben Omulo, Ezekiel Apindi, George Samuel Okoth, Mathayo Otieno, Joel Omino and Jolmeo Okaka. The demands of the YKA included; They were demanding for addressing of the problem of change of the status of Kenya from a protectorate to colonial territory. Demanded for a government school to be built in central Nyanza. Demanded for a self- government for nyanza province with a separate legislative council and an elected African president. They were opposed to forced labour and labour camps. An end to land alienation. Creation of the position of paramount chief for central and southern Nyanza, just like Mumias was for northern Nyanza. Removal of Kipande System. Demanded to be given title deeds for their land. Wanted hut tax removed. The advocated for better wages. The members presented their demands to the Nyanza PC in May 1922 and met governor Northey in Kisumu in July 1922 at Nyahera in Kisumu. The governor agreed to authorize the closing down of labour camps and reduce taxation. However, the revocation of the Crown Colony Status was out of question. In 1923, however, government, alarmed by the mobilization level of YKA in Nyanza, compromised its leadership and Jonathan Okwiri handed over chairmanship to Archdeacon Owen fearing the banning of the association the way EAA had been. Under Owen YKA changed its name to KTWA with its emphasis shifting from politicalKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 68 grievances to social grievances focusing on killing rats, digging latrines and keeping compounds clean. It also adopted the use of written memoranda in expressing their grievances. All Nyanza chiefs became Vice-presidents of the association under its new constitution.


Under Owen YKA changed its name to KTWA with its emphasis shifting from politicalKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 68 grievances to social grievances focusing on killing rats, digging latrines and keeping compounds clean. It also adopted the use of written memoranda in expressing their grievances. All Nyanza chiefs became Vice-presidents of the association under its new constitution. In 1931, the association split up into Luo and Luyia Factions due to disagreements. The Abaluhyia faction formed the North Kavirondo Central Association that had close links with the KCA. It was formed with the objective of stopping any further land alienation for European use without compensation, especially after the 1930s Kakamega Gold rush. By 1944, many of the top leaders of the KTWA had been co-opted into the colonial administration with Okwiri becoming a chief. Benjamin Owuor, Nyende and Okwiri were made members of the LNC in central Nyanza. KWTA was therefore weakened and became extinct in 1944. Ukamba Members Association UMA was formed in 1938 by Samuel Muindi Mbingu Chairman , Elijah Kavula Vice-chairman , Isaac Mwalozi secretary and Simon Kioko treasurer as an association of the Akamba of the eastern part of Kenya. The leaders who founded this association were closely associated with East African Association of Harry Thuku. For example, James Mwanthi, Ali Kilonzi and Muhamed Sheikh. Reasons for the formation of Ukamba Members Association a The Akamba wanted to fight against land alienation for European ranchers causing shortage of land for grazing. B To oppose the colonial policy of de-stocking who argued that overstocking was responsible for soil erosion in Kitui and Machakos regions. In 1936, the Liebigs Group established a meat processing plant to effect the de-stocking policy. C To oppose heavy taxation. D To represent the Akamba people s interests. E To fight for the Akamba rights and freedoms They wrote memorandum to the colonial government with the assistance of Asian lawyers. It mobilized people to fight for their rights through meetings and signing of petitions. They got support from KCA and the Asian representative to the Legco, Isher Das.


E To fight for the Akamba rights and freedoms They wrote memorandum to the colonial government with the assistance of Asian lawyers. It mobilized people to fight for their rights through meetings and signing of petitions. They got support from KCA and the Asian representative to the Legco, Isher Das. The association used Muigwithania journal of KCA to advance their cause. O 28th July 1938, UMA members including women and children demonstrated and marched to Nairobi with their cattle to seek audience with the governor over destocking and grazing policies. They staged a sit in Nairobi for 6 weeks led by Muindi Mbingu until the governor conceded to their demands at a meeting in Machakos. However, their leader, Muindi Mbingu was arrested in September 1938 and deported to Lamu until 1946. The Association was banned at the beginning of World War II. Problems that faced UMA in its operations. A The colonial government had a negative attitude towards the activities of the association. This discouraged open participation. B Arrest of their leader Muindi Mbingu and his deportation to Lamu demoralized the movement. C The Association alongside others was banned, with the World War II looming. Coast Africa AssociationKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 69 The Association was formed in 1943 with Noah Mwana Sele as president, Muhamed bin Mwichande as vice president, E.W. Timothy as secretary General and H.G.Banks as honorary treasurer. Other officials were Muhamed bin Omar, Enoch Benjamin and H. Harrison. Demands of Coast Africa Association. A The demanded for improved education and the general welfare of Africans in the coastal region b The elevation of Shimo la Tewa to a high school. C The establishment of evening classes in the region so as to give African adults a chance to pursue basic western education. D to protest inadequate healthcare services for the Africans. E They were demanding for appointment of Africans as administrators. F They demanded that tax collected from African drinks be used to develop African rural areas. G They demanded for the revocation of allocation of Mijikenda land to Asians and Arabs. H They demanded for African representation of Coast region in the LEGCO in 1947.


F They demanded that tax collected from African drinks be used to develop African rural areas. G They demanded for the revocation of allocation of Mijikenda land to Asians and Arabs. H They demanded for African representation of Coast region in the LEGCO in 1947. Unlike other Associations CAA did not present their grievances in political meetings bur instead used written memoranda and also their newspaper, the Coast African Express whose editor wads Elkana Young. This explains why the association existed while others had been banned. In 1955 however, the association began to disintegrate due to the following reasons; a The departure of their leaders Francis Khamisi and Ronald Ngala who joined the Mombasa African democratic union and the LEGCO. B Leadership wrangles based on ethnic consideration. C Shortage of funds to run the activities of the association. It succeeded in achieving elevation of Shimo la Tewa school into a high school and a Legco position for the Mijikenda. Taita hills Association It was formed on 22nd June 1939, being modeled on the KCA and UMA styles. Its objectives were; To achieve equal political status with whites and Asians. To help the Taita community to advance. To protest the destocking policy. Most of the fertile land of the community had been occupied by European settlers who were growing coffee on it. Oppose the plan to relocate the Wada Wida people from Taita hills to Samburu to create room for settlers. They were opposed to the kipande system and forced labour. The Europeans forced the Wataita to work on coffee plantations and ferry the coffee over long distances for low wages. The pioneer founder of the Association was Daniel Mapinga, a young catechist, who began mobilizing the Wataita against oppressive measures used by the colonial government. Unfortunately he died in 1837. In 1939, Woresho Kolandi Mengo, Jimmy Mwambichi and Paul Chumbo took over his course and established THA with the help of KCA leadership. Achievements. A The association succeeded in stopping the government s plan to relocate the Wada WidaKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 70 people from Taita hills to Samburu to create room for settlers. B The colonial government stopped the de-stocking plan among the Wataita.


Achievements. A The association succeeded in stopping the government s plan to relocate the Wada WidaKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 70 people from Taita hills to Samburu to create room for settlers. B The colonial government stopped the de-stocking plan among the Wataita. C The government revised the Taita reserve boundaries and reduced the land initially carved for European settlers. Problems experienced. A It failed to attract prominent personalities I Tata. B It lacked support of all the African groups in the region. For example the Wataveta and Wagisiga were reluctant to join THA. C The association was banned alongside others in May 1940. D Their leader Mwambichi was deported after being arrested. Problems faced by early political organizations. A Their members were subjected to harassment by the colonial government, especially arresting and dispersing demonstrators. B The organizations were demoralized through the deportation of the leaders like Thuku EAA . Muindi Mbingu UMA and Mwambichi THA . C The associations experienced political wrangles between members as witnessed in KCA between 1931 1nd 1839 and CAA upon departure of its tow key leaders. D Many of the leaders of the organizations had little experience in running political parties and therefore mismanaged their offices. E The organizations were faced with financial inadequacy. Many Africans were experiencing financial problems due to land alienation, taxation and poor working conditions and therefore could not adequately contribute to the associations. F There was a lot of disunity since most organizations were ethnic-based Features of the political associations formed in Kenya before 1939 a They lacked a national outlook since they were ethnic tribal based oriented urban based . Most of them were confined to one or two ethnic communities except EAA. B Most of them received material and moral support from the Asians c Mission-Educated African young men led them. For example, Harry Thuku, Okwiri and Mwambichi. D They were formed in response to socio-economic and land problems of various ethnic groups. E They all agitated for an end to European exploitation and oppression rather than demand for political independence. F Most of them did not attract large membership due to their ethnic tendency. G They were non-militant and tended to be moderate and their demanded.


E They all agitated for an end to European exploitation and oppression rather than demand for political independence. F Most of them did not attract large membership due to their ethnic tendency. G They were non-militant and tended to be moderate and their demanded. H They were characterized by squabbles over leadership. Achievements of early political parties. A They provided political education to the African communities through their political rallies. B They communicated the communities feelings to the colonial government through publications, memoranda or speeches. C They defended the African cultures against further erosion by the European missionaries. For example KCA defended female circumcision among agikuyu. D They re-awakened the masses by making them conscious of the political situation in the country. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 71 d Some succeeded in to stop further land alienation by restraining the Europeans from displacing the Africans to the reserves. For example THA succeeded in stopping the government s plan to relocate the Wada Wida people from Taita hills to Samburu to create room for settlers. E The played the role of trade Unionism by fighting for the welfare of the workers in the absence of formal trade unions. F They publicized Africans grievances to the international community. For Example, the role played by Jomo Kenyatta on behalf of KCA. G They pioneered in the growth of nationalism by forging inter-community relations in the struggle for independence. EMERGENCE OF INDEPENDENT CHURCHES AND SCHOOLS MOVEMENT IN KENYA. This was an expression of African protest against European interference with traditional African economic and political organization. Reasons why independent churches and schools emerged in Kenya. A The desire by majority of Africans to retain their cultural values while at the same time c converting to Christianity. Many were unhappy with the western influence of Christian missionaries who taught against traditional customs. B Africans were unhappy with the 3Rs style of education in mission schools which only prepared them for low positions in government or employment on European farms and homes. They desired to be equal to Europeans and Asians. C Independent schools emerged as a reaction against colonial domination and exploitation in terms of taxation, kipande, forced labour and racial discrimination. D Africans desired leadership in their own churches instead of being led by European missionaries whom they viewed as agents of colonialism.


They desired to be equal to Europeans and Asians. C Independent schools emerged as a reaction against colonial domination and exploitation in terms of taxation, kipande, forced labour and racial discrimination. D Africans desired leadership in their own churches instead of being led by European missionaries whom they viewed as agents of colonialism. E The role played by Africans like John Owalo and Elijah Masinde who claimed to have received divine calls to begin independent churches. F Some Africans felt dissatisfied with the interpretation of the scriptures. The Holy Spirit Church, for example, broke away on this account. G Some churches were formed to allow Africans to express their Christianity freely through dancing, singing and drum beating which many mission churches did not accommodate. H Characteristics of independent churches and schools. Characteristics of independent churches and schools. A All of them accommodated African cultural values. B Both churches and schools valued Christianity and western education but were against the westernizing influence by missionaries. C Africans held positions of leadership in the churches and schools. D Most Churches and schools worked closely with the African political association. The independent churches movement in Nyanza. John Owalo is credited for leading in the establishment of independent churches in nyanza. He stared as a Roman Catholic, then joined the Church of Scotland mission CSM at Kikuyu before moving to the CMS first in Nairobi, then defected to Maseno. The reason why Owalo suffered from denominational defection is because he was seeking for a mission church that accommodated African cultural values and where Africans could be given a say I terms of leadership and worship. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 72 In 1907, Owalo claimed to have received a direct call from God with instructions to begin his own church. Though CMS at Maseno dismissed him as a lunatic , the colonial authority Nyanza PC John Ainsworth granted Owalo permission to start his own mission. In 1910, he founded the Nomiya Luo Church, which became the first independent church in Kenya. Owalo proclaimed himself as a prophet equating similar to Jesus. Other independent churches in Nyanza included; 1 Dini ya Roho Holy Spirit Church founded among the Luhyia in 1927 as a breakaway from the Friends African Mission.


In 1910, he founded the Nomiya Luo Church, which became the first independent church in Kenya. Owalo proclaimed himself as a prophet equating similar to Jesus. Other independent churches in Nyanza included; 1 Dini ya Roho Holy Spirit Church founded among the Luhyia in 1927 as a breakaway from the Friends African Mission. The members claimed to speak in tongues and believed in baptism by the holy spirit , 2 Joroho church founded by Alfayo Odongo Mango in 1932 among the Luo. It was similar to Dini ya Roho. 3 The Christian Universal Evangelical Union founded in 1938 In Siaya by Ismael Noo, a school teacher linked to the Anglican Church at Maseno. He began off as one of the leaders of the revival movement at Maseno, which emphasized salvation by the blood of Jesus and public confession of sin. His movement insisted that men and women should have sexual intercourse since they were saved. His church attracted many women and soon he was accused of infidelity with peoples wives. He officially broke away from the Anglican Church at a convention at Nyabondo in Nyakach to establish the Christian Evangelical Union. The church is currently known as the Christian Evangelical Church, having changed its name in 1965. The independent churches and schools movement in central Kenya Due to its proximity to Nairobi, the seat of colonial administration, central Kenya experienced the presence of white settlers more than any other region in Kenya. The schools established by the so many missionary groups in the region only aimed at imparting basic literacy and numeracy skills to African converts. As the evangelized, the missionary groups condemned many traditional African practices and values like polygamy, consumption of traditional brews and female circumcision. It is behind this backdrop that independent churches and schools emerged in central Kenya. Kikuyu Independent schools. Kikuyu elders out of the desire for western education for their children, without necessarily being Europeanized, set up independent schools. In 1913, a Kikuyu elder, Mukunga wa Njehu, donated land at Gaithieko, Kiambu where the first independent school In central kenya was built. In 1925, another school had been built and registered at Githunguri.


Kikuyu elders out of the desire for western education for their children, without necessarily being Europeanized, set up independent schools. In 1913, a Kikuyu elder, Mukunga wa Njehu, donated land at Gaithieko, Kiambu where the first independent school In central kenya was built. In 1925, another school had been built and registered at Githunguri. The independent Schools Movement emerged in the 1920s as a result of the expulsion from mission schools of the children of the supporters of female circumcision. The two bodies that emerged as a consequence were Kikuyu Independent Schools Association KISA and the Kikuyu Karinga Educational Association KKEA The Kikuyu Independent Schools Association. The Body was closely associated with the Independent Pentecostal Church and was predominantly in Murang a, Nyeri and Embu. Following a showdown over female circumcision, the kikuyu elders got permission from the DC to build a prayer House around Gituamba on land donated by two elders, Kagere Gatundu and Gathai Gachohi of Thiru sub-location. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 73 Between 1929 and 1932, a school was set up at the church. This success inspired the emergence of similar churches and schools in Mariira, Kahiti and Gakarara in Kandara, Murang a. In 1934, KISA was established to coordinate the efficient running of these schools with its leaders including Daudi Maina Kiragu, Musa Muriithi, Hezekiah Gachui, Peter Gathecha and Johana Njoroge. The Association had the responsibility of establishing more schools and maintaining them as well as mobilizing funds for teacher training programmes. Their activities got the support of the colonial authorities which even permitted establishment of more schools that must be registered at the DO s office. By 1935, KISA had established 34 independent schools with an enrolment of 2,518 pupils. Similar schools emerged in the Rift Valley among the kikuyu squatters. Challenges encountered by KISA. A There were inadequate funds to support the large number of pupils and schools. B Many teachers were untrained. C Many of the KISA leaders lacked proper management skills. D Mission schools fought the efforts of KISA leaders.


B Many teachers were untrained. C Many of the KISA leaders lacked proper management skills. D Mission schools fought the efforts of KISA leaders. E There were disagreements among KISA leaders where some demanded for money for the land they had donated for the schools. The independent churches also suffered from lack of ordained ministers. This problem was solved when KCA invited the Most Reverend William Alexander, the Archbishop of the African Orthodox Church in South Africa in 1935, who established a seminary at Gituamba and ordained Daudi Maina Kiragu, Philip Kiande and Harrison Gachukia Kimanga as Ministers. In 1937 after Archbishop Alexander had left, Daudi Maina Kiragu and Harrison Gachukia Kimanga broke away and formed the African Independent Pentecostal Church which they claimed was independent from external influence. In 1938, KISA named their church the Independent Pentecostal Church. By 1952, at the time of its banning, KISA had 168 schools with an enrolment of 60,000 pupils in central Kenya and rift valley. Kikuyu Karinga Educational Association. The association emerged out of a split at the Gituamba between the Murang a group and the Kiambu members who were radical and were more closely associated with KCA. The term Karinga means pure implying unpolluted kikuyu customs and values. KKEA was opposed to all forms of cooperation with either the missionaries or the colonial authority. By 1940, it had established 12 schools in Kiambu and 11 in the rift valley. By 1952, it had established schools at Moshi and Arusha in Tanganyika. It established its own church in 1952 the African Orthodox Church of Kenya , relying on church ministers trained at Gituamba seminary. It was led by Arthur Gathuna and Philip Kiande The Association was banned in 1952 after declaration of a State of Emergency. In 1939, the Kenya Teachers Training College was established at Githunguri, Kiambu, to train teachers for the independent schools. Mbiyu Koinange was the first principal. It was closed in 1952 alongside other independent schools. Problems faced by independent churches and schools.


Mbiyu Koinange was the first principal. It was closed in 1952 alongside other independent schools. Problems faced by independent churches and schools. A Poor leadership as many churches and schools were led by people without anyKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 74 management experience. Many of them lacked trained personnel who could run them efficiently. B They faced a lot of hostility from the colonial government and missionaries who constantly harassed them. C Ideological differences among their leaders on which name to adopt. There were also many leadership squabbles as all founders wanted to be recognized. D The schools were forced to follow the official syllabus and become members of the District Education Board. E The independent churches and schools competed with mission churches and schools for followers with the later declaring war on certain African practices POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS AND MOVEMENTS AFTER 1945. Factors that hastened political development in Kenya after 1945. A The Acquisition of western education by many Africans by 1945 which enabled them to articulate their grievances more forcefully and to understand political developments outside Kenya. B The return of the ex-servicemen after the second world war which exposed the myth of the white supremacy making Africans ready to fight them. Moreover, the colonial government failed to reward African ex-soldiers to embitter them more. C The change of government from Conservative to Labour Party in Britain in 1946 stimulated a new attitude in Britain towards decolonization. Africans in Kenya took advantage of this attitude. D The granting of independence to India and Pakistan in 1947 aroused great confidence among Africans in Kenya to also clamour for their own independence. E The rise of Pan-Africanism in Africa after the 1945 Manchester conference contributed to the new demands for political independence in Kenya. F The formation of the UNO and the pressure it exerted on the European powers to decolonize helped the Kenyans in their course. G The emergence of United States and the Soviet Union as super powers in the world contributed to the decolonization process. USA was keen to see Britain and France grant independence to their subjects in the world in order to secure new markets. H The signing of the Atlantic Charter in 1941 by Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt which demanded that when the WWII ended, all subject peoples should enjoy the right to self-determination.


G The emergence of United States and the Soviet Union as super powers in the world contributed to the decolonization process. USA was keen to see Britain and France grant independence to their subjects in the world in order to secure new markets. H The signing of the Atlantic Charter in 1941 by Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt which demanded that when the WWII ended, all subject peoples should enjoy the right to self-determination. I The costs incurred by the European nations during WW2 made their taxpayers become reluctant to raise any more funds for colonial expenditures. Characteristics of political parties formed after 1945. A They had a national outlook as members were drawn from different ethnic groups b Their main objectives was to fight for independence c Educated elites led them d They had a large membership. E They demanded for fair taxation for Africans. F They all demanded for improved conditions for African workers. G They all demanded for the return of alienated land. Kenya African Study UnionKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 75 When Eliud Mathu was nominated to the Legco on 10th October 1944, a number of well educated Africans led by Francis Khamisi agreed to form Kenya African Union KAU with the following objectives;. A To assist Mathu in his new task as the first African nominated to the LEGCO. B To create a Multi-ethnic political grouping representing the interests and constitutional rights of all Africans effectively. C To advocate for more constitutional reforms for Africans. D To demand for better living and working conditions. The interim officials were Harry Thuku chairman , Francis Khamisi Secretary and Albert Owino treasurer . Other officials were James Gichuru, John Kebaso, Simeon Mulandi, Harry ole Nangurai, S.0. Josiah, F.M. Ng anga, Jimmy Jeremiah, J.D. Otiende and S.D. Jakay. Two weeks after its formation, the governor ordered its officials to change its name to the Kenya African Study Union as it was meant to help Mathu in studying African problems. In January 1945, James Gichuru became the president of KASU after Harry Thuku resigned, being unable to cope with radicalism in the union.


Jakay. Two weeks after its formation, the governor ordered its officials to change its name to the Kenya African Study Union as it was meant to help Mathu in studying African problems. In January 1945, James Gichuru became the president of KASU after Harry Thuku resigned, being unable to cope with radicalism in the union. Under Gichuru, KASU published a newspaper - Sauti ya Mwafrika that concentrated on African grievances and the proposed East African Federation which they opposed. The organization rejected proposals to give more powers to European members in the Executive council. They refused to accept a European dominated government of the East African Federation. Later in 1946 on KASU changed its name to KAU feeling that the former name was inappropriate. Kenya African Union Formed in February 1946, the main demands of KAU were; They protested against inadequate African representation in the LEGCO. They protested against the lack of Participation of Africans in the governance of Kenya. They even demanded for Self-government for Africans. They were against the continued existence of the Kipande System and forced labour. They demanded improvement of the African working conditions with better wages equal to what was paid to other races. They demanded an end to Land alienation and racial discrimination. They demanded an end to Imposition of taxes. They demanded compensation of ex-servicemen. They were protesting against Lack of education opportunities for Africans. The return to Kenya by Kenyatta in 1946 marked the beginning of mass nationalism. On 1st June 1947, Kenyatta became president of KAU after Gichuru stepped down for him. W.W.W. Awori was elected vice-president and Ambrose Ofafa and Muchohi Gikonyo were elected treasurer and secretary respectively. Kenyatta travelled widely in Kenya where he urged people to join KAU After 1947 KAU began to face the problem of a standoff between Radicals like Fred Kubai and Paul Ngei who wanted to use force to acquire independence, and moderates like Kenyatta himself. Radicals who included Bildad Kaggia took over the Nairobi branch of KAU. When the national delegates conference was held in 1951, Jomo Kenyatta retained presidency, J.D. Otiende became secretary General, PAUL Ngei assistant SG and Ole Nangurai Treasurer.


E A few progressive African farmers were allowed to grow cash crops. Kenya African National Union During the emergency period, From October 1952 to December 1959 African participation in the political process increased rapidly. The Kenya African National Union KANU was formed after the First Lancaster House Conference of January 1960 resolved that nationwide political parties be formed in Kenya as a step towards decolonization. On 27th march 1960, at a meeting at Kirigiti, Kiambu convened by ex-KAU strongmen, James Gichuru and Oginga Odinga, KAU merged with Kenya Independent Movement and the People's Congress Party to form KANU. The colonial government declined to register KANU with Kenyatta as president since he was still in detention. In May 1960 James Gichuru took the presidency with Odinga as his deputy. Tom Mboya became the secretary General and Arthur Ochwada his assistant. Ronald Ngala and Daniel Moi were elected treasurer and assistant treasurer respectively in absentia as they were attending a commonwealth parliamentary Association meeting in London. In the party s constitution, drafted by Mwai Kibaki and Tom Mboya, the following were the objectives; a To attain political independence for Africans inn Kenya. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 82 b To achieve national unity through a unitary national constitution under one central government. C To create a society based on African socialism. D To eradicate poverty, ignorance and disease. E To get back African land. F To have all political detainees released. G To unite with liberation movements in other countries in a Africa in order to end imperialism and colonialism in the continent. H To encourage good neighbourliness in the East African Region. When Kenyata was released, he took over leadership of the party. During the independence elections in may 1963, KANU won 73 seats against KADU s 31 and African Peoples Party s 8 . Jomo Kenyatta became the Prime Minister on 1st June 1963. Achievements of KANU in the struggle for independence. A KANU mobilized Africans in Kenya and united them in the struggle for independence. B Through its numerous nationwide meetings, it provided political education to the Africans in Kenya.


A It united the smaller communities in Kenya. E.g the Kalenjin, Luhyia, Maasai and coastal communities. B It educated mobilized Africans against the colonial domination. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 83 c It pressed for the release of Jomo Kenyatta while hopping that he would eventually join on their side. D It participated in drawing up the independence constitution in the second Lancaster House conference. E As an opposition party though for a short time, it helped to provide checks on the KANU government. Challenges faced by KADU. A There were suspicions of dominance of the party by some communities. B The party faced the problem of lacking adequate funds to carry out its countrywide campaigns for Independence. C Wrangles between senior officials of the party often undermined the party s operations. D Illiteracy among the majority of the members left the top leaders with too much responsibility over party affairs. E The party was prone to manipulations by the colonial authority in its operations. F The party members were faced with a lot of pressure from KANU to decamp. African People s Party. The party also emerged after the 1962 Lancaster House conference, founded by Paul Ngei, one of the radical members of KAU s Nairobi branch. Paul Ngei had similar fears just like the founders of KADU that the Akamba interests would not be catered for in the proposed government arrangement that favoured KANU as well as KADU. The party was formed in February 1962. After Kenya became a republic in 1964, APP decamped from the opposition to join KANU. The trade-union movement. The early trade Unions in Kenya were formed along racial lines though all form them aimed at addressing labour problems that faced workers. The first trade union in Kenya was the Indian Trade Union formed in 1914 in mombasa. Upto 1914, there existed no African trade union in Kenya because of the following reasons; a Artisans and farm labourers were not allowed to join or form associations since it was feared they would organize sudden and unofficial strikes. B Majority of the Kenyans were illiterate and lacked the knowledge to run workers unions. C The migrant labour system militated against the establishment of such unions. D The colonial government fought attempts by Africans to form workers organizations.


Meanwhile a trade dispute tribunal led by Mr. Justice Thacker was set up to look into the workers grievances. The AWF became very popular to all workers in Kenya due to the success of the strike. However its leaders were either repatriated from Mombasa to their reserve areas or as was the case of Kibachia, arrested and detained in Baringo district. Achievements of AWF. A It mobilized workers from different communities to come together and fight for better wages. B It provided education to the workers about their rights. C It introduced the concept of collective bargaining among workers in Kenya. D It fought for better living and working conditions for workers. E It advocated for better allowances for African workers wives and children, a factor which resulted in better wages and salaries for workers. F Its activities made the colonial government change its attitude towards labour unions and start to give attention to workers grievances. G It succeeded in exposing the Kenyan workers grievances to the international community as its strike was internationally publicized. Kenya Federation of Labour. Following the enactment of the Trade Unions Ordinance in 1952, various small African trade unions Kenya Local Government Workers Union, Domestic and Hotel Workers Union and East AFRICAN Federation of Building and Construction united to form the Kenya Federation of Registered Trade Unions KFRTU . Its officials included Mwichigi Karanja president , Aggrey Mwinya secretary general , S. Ondiege, Elikana Okusimba, Silas Okeya, David Jomo, S. Osore, James Wainaina and Dishon Sambili. Among the demands of KFRTU were the following; Increase in African wages. Improvement of the living conditions and poor housing for its workers Protest against the arrest and detention of union officials. Protest against forceful evacuation of the Aembu, Ameru and Agikuyu from Nairobi In 1953. Protest against increase in the price of tea and bread in 1955 Protest against the continuity of the state of emergency. In 1953, Tom Mboya s Kenya Local Government workers Union KLGWU joined KFRTU. The following were elected officials in the 1953 elections.


Protest against increase in the price of tea and bread in 1955 Protest against the continuity of the state of emergency. In 1953, Tom Mboya s Kenya Local Government workers Union KLGWU joined KFRTU. The following were elected officials in the 1953 elections. David Njomo-prrsident, Stephen Obwaka-Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 85 vice president, Tom Mboya- general secretary, G.W.Owuor-assistant SG, Daniel Ng ethetreasurer and John Opiyo- ass treasurer. In 1955, it changed its name to the Kenya Federation of Labour KFL representing 35,000 members. Due to Tom Mboya s efforts KFL was affiliated to the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions ICFTU . Achievements of KFL. A It kept the spirit of African nationalism alive during the emergency period when political associations had been banned. B It secured international support through its affiliation to ICFTU for the cause of African nationalism. C It educated Africans on their rights as workers. D It helped to improve the living conditions of African workers securing for them a major salary increment in 1956 e It prepared some African nationalists for leadership roles in the struggle for independence. For example, martin Shikuku and Tom Mboya. Role of trade union movement in the struggle for independence in Kenya a Trade Unions mobilized workers to strike against colonial government. B They Motivated workers to sustain the struggle for their political rights self governance c They provided national political parties with funds required for their operation. D Trade union leaders became prominent leaders of political associations that fought for independence. E They introduced the concept of collective bargaining for workers in Kenya. F The unions promoted regional cooperation in east Africa. G They improved working conditions of the Africans through their welfare duties. H They intensified the spirit of nationalism after ban on political parties. I They provided a training ground for nationalist leaders e.g. Thomas Mboya j Educated Africans on their rights Problem faced by trade unions during the colonial period. A There was fear of victimization and harassment from the colonial authorities especially in the pioneer years. B The migrant nature of African workforce paused a challenge to their membership. C Ignorance of the African people about trade unionism and its role.


B Lifting the ban on African political Associations. This was done in 1955 though only Africans were allowed to form local district based political organizations. Tom Mboya formed the Nairobi People s convention Party while D. Mwanyumba formed the Taita African Democratic Union. John Kebaso formed the Abagusii Association, Argwings Kodhek formed the Kenya National Congress and John Keen the Maasai Front. C Africans were able to take part in elections of 1957. It proposed multi-racial elections. However, other than race-pegged rules for participation in the 1956 57 elections, Voting qualification for Africans were based on income, property and education d Proposed direct representation of Africans in the LEGCO. In march 1957, the African elections to the Legco were held and Tom Mboya Nairobi , Masinde Muliro Northern Nyanza , Oginga Odinga Central Nyanza , Lawrence Ogunda south Nyanza , Ronald Ngala Coast , Daniel Arap Moi Rift Valley , James Miumi Ukambani and Bernard Mate central were elected. The elected Africans formed the African Elected Members Organization AEMO with Odinga as chairman and Mboya as secretary. Demands of AEMO after formation. A They contested the fewer African positions in the LegCo by condemning the Lyttelton constitution. While elected members were 29, nominated members were 30, majority of who were Europeans. B They protested the rigid voter qualification requirements imposed on Africans and demanded that every African of 21 years and above be allowed to vote, regardless of education or income. C They demanded that registration of voters be done on a common roll. D They called for the end of a State of Emergency. Role played by AEMO in the struggle for independence up to 1963. A They formed pressure groups to demand for greater political rights for Africans. E.g., formation of AEMO. B They formed the core team, which pressurized for independence. C They made known the grievances of Africans in International Fora. D They networked with other African nationalists elsewhere e.g. in Ghana and Nigeria to hasten achievement of independence in Kenya. E They fought for the release of detained nationalists e.g. Kenyatta. F They formed he national political parties e.g.


E They fought for the release of detained nationalists e.g. Kenyatta. F They formed he national political parties e.g. KANU and KADU, which led the country toKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 89 independence. G They educated and created awareness among the masses about the nationalists struggle. H They took part in the formulation of the independence constitution. The Lennox-Boyd Constitution. In 1958, Sir Allan Lennox- Boyd, who had succeeded Oliver Lyttelton as secretary State for Colonies visited Kenya and made the following constitutional proposals; a An increase by six LegCo Seats for Africans to bring their total representation to 14 seats. B A special membership in the LegCo, with four members from each race, who were to elected by other members of the LegCo. C An increase of the number of African ministers to two. AEMO members rejected the Lennox-Boyd proposals saying they still favoured white monopoly in the colony especially the specially elected membership to LegCo. AEMO also called for the unconditional release of Jomo Kenyatta. They even boycotted the Legco from 1958 to 1959 when a new constitutional conference was promised. Acted of Betrayal became evident among Africans when Musa Amalemba and Wanyutu Waweru accepted the special seats appointment and even Amalemba went ahead to appointed the second African Minister for Housing in 1958. Other developments in 1959 included; The White moderates led by Michael Blundell who resigned as minister of agriculture formed the New Party of Kenya NPK . He was backed by 46 non-African members of the LegCo for his ideas of multi-racialism. The white extremists led by Captain Briggs formed the United Party UP demanding for the abolishing of the LegCo and replacing it with regional assemblies. This was aimed at preserving the white highlands as one regional assembly for European benefits. Increased divisions on AEMO between radicals and moderates .Ngala, Moi, Mate, Towett and Nyagah resigned from AEMO to form the Kenya National Party KNP advocating multi-racialism. This party was interestingly joined by all Arab and Asian members.


This was aimed at preserving the white highlands as one regional assembly for European benefits. Increased divisions on AEMO between radicals and moderates .Ngala, Moi, Mate, Towett and Nyagah resigned from AEMO to form the Kenya National Party KNP advocating multi-racialism. This party was interestingly joined by all Arab and Asian members. The radicals led by Mboya, Odinga and Gikonyo Kiano formed the Kenya Independent Movement KIM that was exclusively for African membership. They demanded convening of a full constitutional conference to discuss Kenya s future and release of Jomo Kenyatta. The Lancaster House Conferences. The Conferences were called to iron out the differences that arose out of the fact that both radical Europeans and AEMO members opposed multi-racialism. The First Lancaster House Conference 1960 The conference was convened by Ian MacLeod, the secretary of state for colonies. It was attended by all members of the LegCo.. The African team was led by Ronald Ngala and Tom Mboya was the secretary. The conference came up with the following compromise decisions; a The 12 elective seats In the LegCo would remain intact. B There were to 33 open seats in the LegCo, which were to be vied for on a common roll. C Another 20 seats would be reserved 10 of these for Europeans, 8 for Asians and 2 for Arabs. D The composition of the Council of Ministers was to be altered to incorporate 4 Africans, 3 Europeans and 1 Asian. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 90 e The conference authorized the formation of countrywide political parties for Africans. KANU and KANU were formed. The Lancaster conference however failed to entirely please both Africans and the settlers. Some settlers, finding the new turn events so tough began to sell their property and leave Kenya. Africans though feeling that they had not been given a responsive government, accepted ministerial positions as follows; a Ronald Ngala- Minister for Labour, Social Security and Adult Education. B Julius Gikonyo Kiano- Minister for Commerce and Industry. C Musa Amalemba- Minister for Housing, Common Services, Probation and Approved Schools. D James Nzaui Miumi- Minister for Health and Welfare.


B Julius Gikonyo Kiano- Minister for Commerce and Industry. C Musa Amalemba- Minister for Housing, Common Services, Probation and Approved Schools. D James Nzaui Miumi- Minister for Health and Welfare. Out of fear of political domination by the big tribes the following new alliances were formed; a The Kalenjin Political Alliance of Taita Towett. B The Coast African Political Union of Ronald Ngala. C The Kenya African People s Party of Masinde Muliro. In the 1961 elections KANU won but refused to form government demanding release of Kenyatta. KADU was invited by the governor, Patrick Renson to form a coalition government with Europeans and Asians. When Kenyatta came on 21st August 1961, Kariuki Njiiri offered his Murang a seat to Kenyatta to enable him join LegCo. The second Lancaster conference 1962 The main aim of this conference, called by the then secretary for colonies, Reginald Maulding was to draft the independence constitution acceptable to the two main parties KADU and KANU. It also aimed at reconciling the differences between the two parties. KANU delegation was led by Jomo Kenyatta while Ngala led the KADU group. KANU conceded many KADU grounds to enable success of the negotiations. Main provisions of the independence constitution of Kenya. A The independence constitution provided for a regional majimbo government with each region having a regional assembly and p resident. B It also provided for a bicameral parliament consisting of the senate and the house of representatives upper house and lower house. C The constitution stipulated that the Prime Minister was to be head of Government and Queen the Head of State, represented by the Governor General. D The constitution recommended a multiparty system of government and the party with the majority of seats forming the government. E It contained the Bill of Rights, which protected the individual s rights. In the elections of 1963, KANU won with 73 seats against KADU s 31, APP s 8. Jomo Kenyatta became the first Prime Minister on 1st June 1963. On 12 December, Kenya attained full independence. On 12th December 1964, Kenya became a republic with Kenyatta becoming an executive president.


Jomo Kenyatta became the first Prime Minister on 1st June 1963. On 12 December, Kenya attained full independence. On 12th December 1964, Kenya became a republic with Kenyatta becoming an executive president. EMERGENCE AND GROWTH OF NATIONALISM IN AFRICA Factors for the rise of nationalism in Africa. A The exposure of Africans to severe economic exploitation during the colonial period. For example land alienation in the Kenya Highlands, in southern Rhodesian, Algeria and SouthKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 91 Africa which was accompanied with forced labour where the labourers faced mistreatment. B Africans were fed up of heavy and harsh taxation by the Europeans. They were exposed to heavy taxation, ranging from hut tax to breast tax in Belgian Congo. C Africans were fed up with the gradual destruction of their culture by the whites. Missionaries totally dismissed the age-old African traditions as being barbaric. This explains why independent schools and churches sprung up in central Kenya. D The introduction of racial discrimination to go hand in hand with colonialism. All the best social amenities in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Kenya were reserved for the whites. The Europeans equated the black colour with low intelligence, uncivilized and a backward race. E Africans resented colonialism because it interfered with their political institutions. The colonial rulers disregarded traditional rulers, appointing their own puppets in their place. F The Acquisition of western education by many Africans by 1945 enabled them to articulate their grievances more forcefully and to understand political developments outside Africa. G The return of the ex-servicemen after the second world war which exposed the myth of the white supremacy making Africans ready to fight them. Moreover, the colonial government failed to reward African ex-soldiers to embitter them more. H The change of government from Conservative to Labour Party in Britain in 1946 stimulated a new attitude in Britain towards decolonization. This motivated African nationalists. I The rise of nationalism in Asia, culminating into the granting of independence to India and Pakistan in 1947 aroused great confidence among Africans who worked closely with Asian nationalists like Jawaharlal Nehru, the India Prime Minister. J The rise of Pan-Africanism in Africa after the 1945 Manchester conference contributed to the new demands for political independence in Africa Many African lites attended the conference which served as a source of awakening.


This motivated African nationalists. I The rise of nationalism in Asia, culminating into the granting of independence to India and Pakistan in 1947 aroused great confidence among Africans who worked closely with Asian nationalists like Jawaharlal Nehru, the India Prime Minister. J The rise of Pan-Africanism in Africa after the 1945 Manchester conference contributed to the new demands for political independence in Africa Many African lites attended the conference which served as a source of awakening. K The formation of the UNO and the pressure it exerted on the European powers to decolonize helped the Africans in their course. L The emergence of United States and the Soviet Union as super powers in the world contributed to the decolonization process. USA was keen to see Britain and France grant independence to their subjects in the world in order to secure new markets. M The signing of the Atlantic Charter in 1941 by Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt which demanded that when the WWII ended, all subject peoples should enjoy the right to self-determination. NATIONALISM IN GHANA The British annexed Gold Coast in 1874 after quelling a stiff resistance by the Asante. In response to the British imperialism, the Fonte Confederation was initiated in 1868, marking the birth of African Nationalism in Ghana. In 1897, the Aborigines Rights Protection Society was formed to guard against the alienation of African land. In the 1930s, African elites like J.B. Danquah launched the Gold Coast Youth Conference in order to awaken the youth to the economic and social needs of the country. Their efforts bore fruits because in 1946, governor Burns embarked on constitutional reforms leading to increased African representation in the LegCo. Of the 18 slots given to Africans in the LegCo, 13 were to drawn from among the chiefs while 5 were to be popularly elected . The elites formed the United Gold Coast Convention UGCC and invited Kwame Nkrumah, a graduate of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, to come and lead it since most ofKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 92 them were professionals lacking time for political commitment. Nkrumah appeared to have more political experience having participated in the 1945 Manchester conference. Factors for the growth of nationalism in Ghana. A The early Introduction of cocoa growing led to adoption of money economy in Ghana ahead of other countries.


Nkrumah appeared to have more political experience having participated in the 1945 Manchester conference. Factors for the growth of nationalism in Ghana. A The early Introduction of cocoa growing led to adoption of money economy in Ghana ahead of other countries. This enabled faster social and economic transformation of the people. B The colonial government s attempt to tamper with cocoa growing by ordering cutting of coca trees hurt people to the level of developing nationalistic feelings against the British. C Ghana was one of the first countries in Africa to receive western education from the missionaries. There was a large class of elites with western university education accompanied with leadership skills to spearhead nationalism their country. D The existence of ex-servicemen in Ghana also played an important role in the campaign for independence. E The granting of trading licences by the government selectively to European traders while deliberately denying then Africans. F Ghana had comparatively better developed transport and communication system. Also being a small country, movement of information, ideas and people was easy, quick and efficient. This facilitated nationalist activities. G The charismatic and strong leadership provided by Kwame Nkrumah brought cohesiveness among people of Ghana. He formed the CPP party, which became the symbol of struggle for the oppressed people of Ghana. H The participation of Kwame Nkrumah in the Pan-African Manchester conference in 1945, which championed the right of countries to self-determination, made the country take the lead in Africa in championing this right. I The people of Ghana were more exposed to international affairs than other countries in Africa due to its location in a region, which had the earliest contacts with European traders and colonizers. The peak of nationalism in Ghana. On 28th February 1948, the ex-soldiers led the Accra riots, protesting to Governor Gerald Creasy the failed fulfillment of the government pledges while in service during the World War II. Two rioters were killed. The shooting incident sparked of chaos in the town leading to another 29 Africans being killed. Nkrumah was arrested together with his colleagues popularly known as the Big Six . Nkrumah, Danquah, William Ofori, Addo, Adjei and Obetsebi Lamptey . This arrest popularized Nkrumah among the Africans. The 1948 Alken Watson commission blamed the social-economic oppression for the riots. The governor ordered for constitutional reforms led by J.H Coussey.


This arrest popularized Nkrumah among the Africans. The 1948 Alken Watson commission blamed the social-economic oppression for the riots. The governor ordered for constitutional reforms led by J.H Coussey. On 12th June 1949, Nkrumah broke ranks with the conservative UGCC senior members and formed the Convention People s Party CPP . His party gained support mainly from among the primary school leavers, store-keepers, artisans, peasants and cocoa farmers. Nkrumah advocated positive action through legitimate political action, newspaper and political campaigns and constitutional application of boycotts, strikes and non-cooperation based on the policy of absolute non-violence on the basis of Mahatma Gandhi teachings. He started a newspaper, The Accra Evening News to expound CPP views. He was arrested, but secured landslide victory in the February 1951 elections while in jail. He was released to become the leader of government business in the new cabinet. CPP also won in the 1954 elections in whichKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 93 a new party, the National Liberation Movement NLM had emerged to compete CPP. NLM membership mainly from the Ashanti, were uncomfortable with Nkrumah because; He came from a small ethnic group little known in southern Ghana. His radicalism did not please the conservative Ashanti leaders. Again elections were called in July 1956 and CPP trounced NLM. This time, the British accepted the results and on 6th March 1957, the country attained political independence under Kwame Nkrumah Achievements of CPP under Kwame Nkrumah. A CPP under Nkrumah united Africans of all ranks in Ghana in the struggle for national liberation. B The party introduced the concept of positive action to pressurize the government to liberate Africans. C CPP formed the first African government in Africa in 1951 after winning the elections. Under Nkrumah s leadership, Ghana began attaining economic development. D CPP, under Nkrumah, advocated for unity of all Africans in the country us other parties like NLM advocated for regionalism, a factor that enhanced progress towards political libration. How Kwame Nkrumah contributed to the liberation struggle in Africa. A He funded nationalists in other countries e.g. Guinea and Algeria. B He supported other African leaders who faced political threats from their former colonial masters.


A He funded nationalists in other countries e.g. Guinea and Algeria. B He supported other African leaders who faced political threats from their former colonial masters. C When some countries were faced with threats from their former colonial masters after independence like in the case of Patrice Lumumba in DRC, Nkrumah provided them with his support. D He championed trade unionism in Africa. E He attended pan-African congress in 1945 which was key to defining the liberation struggles in Africa. F He initiated the formation of the Ghana- Guinea Union in 1958 as a practical step towards building African unity. G He convened two pan-African conferences in April 1958 and the all African Peoples conference in December 1958 that led to the formation of O.A.U in 1963. NATIONALISM IN MOZAMBIQUE. Mozambique was among the last countries in Africa to attain independence from the Portuguese. Even before the Berlin conference, Mozambique and Angola were considered Portuguese colonies owing to the later s interests in the region dating back to the pioneer years. Reasons for slow process in decolonization process of Mozambique. A Mozambique was colonized by a colonial power that was very poor and backward and which needed to keep its hold on her to enable her economy grow. She was an important source of revenue for the Lisbon government. B Mozambique housed many settlers who had invested heavily in farming, mining, building, construction and in other sectors. They were therefore reluctant to leave. C Mozambique was an important market for Portuguese products. Portugal was not willing to let go easily. D The support, which the colonial government got from South Africa, enabled them to getKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 94 uranium, which they used, for making bombs used to suppress African independence riots. They also got electricity and assistance to built caborra bassa dam on Zambezi. E Mozambique was big geographically with very poor infrastructure i.e. roads and communication facilities. This hampered fast movement of people and ideas. F Unlike other colonized countries, Mozambique suffered the worst kind of exploitation and repression rigorous censorship and surveillance by security forces, which discouraged emergence of nationalism. G The Portuguese practiced racism out of fear that if they educated Africans and gave them equal status, the Africans would outnumber them and throw them out. Factors for the growth of nationalism in Mozambique.


F Unlike other colonized countries, Mozambique suffered the worst kind of exploitation and repression rigorous censorship and surveillance by security forces, which discouraged emergence of nationalism. G The Portuguese practiced racism out of fear that if they educated Africans and gave them equal status, the Africans would outnumber them and throw them out. Factors for the growth of nationalism in Mozambique. A The arbitrary replacement of the traditional rulers by the Portuguese administrators whenever they felt they were not performing. B The massive alienation of African land by the Portuguese who pushed Africans to regions of unfavourable conditions. C The exposure of Africans to severe economic exploitation like forced labour where the labourers faced mistreatment. D The rampant racial discrimination through which Africans continued to lose agricultural land to the Europeans. Being from a poor country, the Europeans competed with Africans for simple jobs like taxi deriving and often gaining advantage on racial lines. E The Portuguese imposed many restrictions on Africans, limiting their freedom of expression and intellectual advancement. For example, General Salazar, who rose to power in the 1920s, ensured strict censorship of the press. F The security police treated Africans with great cruelty. Any political unrest was crushed ruthlessly. The peak of nationalism in Mozambique. In early 1960, the Makonde people of Cabo Delgado province formed the Mozambican- Makonde Union MANU .In June 1960 MANU organized a peaceful protest but in which over 600 Africans perished in police firepower. The government outlawed all African organizations with membership of over thirty people. African political activities went underground. Mwalimu Julius Nyerere inviting some of the liberation groups to relocate to Tanzania in 1962. The political groups united to form the Liberation Front of Mozambique FRELIMO with Eduardo Mondlane Chirambo, formerly a lecturer at Syracuse University in USA, as its first president. From 1962 to 1964, FRELIMO undertook guerilla training in Bagamoyo and at the Mozambique institute in Dar es Salam in preparation for war. From September 1964, they began a full-scale war against the Portuguese along river Ruvuma and extending their attacks on the Cabo Delgado province. By 1967, the Portuguese forces numbered 65,000 soldiers. Mondlane Eduardo was assassinated in 1969. Samora Machel was elected to become the FRELIMO army commander in 1970.


C FRELIMO was a formidable, well-organized force, which witnessed rapid expansion from a mere 250 in 1964 to 35000 in 1967. D The forested environment favoured guerilla warfare. Moreover, the soldiers knew the topography of the country. E The local population gave their logistic support to the fighters, having become tired of the extreme suppression by the Portuguese administration. F The movement fighters had their own supply of food. G African countries through OAU were united against the Portuguese in Mozambique. H The communist countries notably USSR and china gave FRELIMO military aid. I FRELIMO adopted the right strategy; liberating the country bit by bit and systematically. This approach won the local people s support for the movement. J The FRELIMO Army consisted of all tribes, all sexes and all ages. The women played a very important role in the success of the war. I.e. spies, some fought, hiding the fighters and cooking for them. Problems that faced FRELIMO in the war against Portuguese. A Africans experienced severe shortage of basic needs while in the forests. The government forces ensured that food and other supplies did not reach the fighters. B The attitude of the church in Mozambique made many African faithful reluctant to support the liberation war. The church termed FRELIMO a terrorist organization. C FRELIMO suffered internal divisions due to ideological differences and selfish ambitions among some of the nationalists. African elites like Reverend Uria Simango and Lazaro Kavandame saw FRELIMO as an instrument of acquiring assets for their own selfish benefits. D Competition from rival guerilla movements like Revolutionary Committee of Mozambique COREMO which broke away from FRELIMO in 1965 due to the later s lean towardsKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 96 socialism. E The assassination of FRELIMO leader Eduardo Mondlane in Da es Salaam on 3rd February 1969 was a great blow to the nationalists. F The brutality employed by the Portuguese in dealing with FRELIMO sympathizers. For example at Wiriyamu, in December 1972, 400 civilians, protesting against the Portuguese administration, were massacred. G The apartheid regime in South Africa and the Unilateral Declaration of Independence regime in south Rhodesia combined forces to fight the nationalists in Mozambique since they were a threat to their countries.


African Nationalism Its roots are traced in the 17th century with the first Boer occupation of South Africa. Africans resisted strongly against the interference with their political freedom and economic resources. This was in form of the Xhosa and Ndebele wars of the 17th c and the Zulu wars of 1870s led by Cetewayo. In 1906, a Zulu chief named Bambata staged another African uprising this time against the British who had annexed the Zululand in 1887. From 1910, when the union of South Africa was created and the Afrikaners gained political control of South Africa, Africans lost all the political privileges they previously enjoyed likeKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 97 ability to vote and contest parliamentary seats. Africans founded independent churches and formed organizations like the Orange River Organization. Factors for the growth of African nationalism in South Africa. A The role of the Christian religion whose ideals encouraged Africans to fight for equality, as all people were equal before God. The Boers however treated Africans with contempt. B The exposure of Africans to severe economic exploitation like land alienation and causing them to be subjected to forced labour on Afrikaner farms. Even the native Land Act of 1913 denied Africans the right to purchase land outside the areas set aside for Africans. C The influence of Pan-Africanism in South Africa as early as the 19th century when people like Rev. Dube founded the Ohlange Institute to educate fellow Africans in South Africa. D The introduction of racial discrimination enshrined in the apartheid law of 1948 convinced Africans that only freedom could save them. All the best hotels, restaurants, schools, recreational centres and most fertile soils were reserved for the whites only. E The Acquisition of western education by many Africans like Rev. Dube, Walter Sisulu and Nelson Mandela enabled them to articulate their grievances more forcefully. They became pioneers of early African political parties. F The return of the ex-servicemen after the second world war which exposed the myth of the white supremacy making Africans ready to fight them. The war also exposed them to democratic ideals elsewhere. G The great exploitation of African labour through Labour regulations and laws. For example, the Mines and Works Act of 1911 effectively excluded Africans from all skilled occupations confining them to manual occupations in Mines and farms.


The Johannesburg railway station bomber, John Harris, was hanged. The Black conscious movement - Soweto, 1976. In the absence of other forms of political expression, young people sought alternative means to express their political aspirations. African university students, disappointed with the multiracial National Union of South African Students NUSAS , decided to establish the South African Students' Organization SASO in 1969 with Steve Biko, an African medical student at the University of Natal, as president. In 1972, a Black allied workers union and the Black Peoples' Convention BPC was set up to act as a political umbrella organization for the adherents of black consciousness. In 1972, SASO organized strikes on university campuses resulting in the arrest of more than 600 students. On June 16, 1976, hundreds of high-school students in Soweto marched in protest against use of Afrikaans as a Language of instruction. Over 360 African schoolchildren were killed. On 12th September 1977, Steve Biko, who had been held in indefinite detention, died from massive head injuries sustained during police interrogation. In October 1977, SASO, the BPC and all black consciousness organizations were banned. The peak of African nationalism in South Africa. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 99 In 1983, P.W. Botha's government proposed establishment of separate houses of parliament for each racial group. In place of the single House of Parliament were; A 50-member all-white House of Assembly. A 25-member coloured House of Representatives. A 13 member Indian House of Delegates. Implications and results Whites thus retained a majority in any joint session. Liberal government opponents denounced Botha's plans arguing it would permanently exclude Africans from any political role in South Africa. Most blacks strongly condemned the new constitution as it reinforced the apartheid notion. Indians and coloureds also condemned the constitution feeling it weakened their participation in the political process Radical Afrikaners, led by Eugene Terry Blanche, vowed to use all means, including violence, to make sure that apartheid was not weakened. The United Democratic Front UDF , which was formed in late 1983 and the National Front NF aimed to use nonviolent means to persuade the government to withdraw its constitutional proposals and do away with apartheid.


Most blacks strongly condemned the new constitution as it reinforced the apartheid notion. Indians and coloureds also condemned the constitution feeling it weakened their participation in the political process Radical Afrikaners, led by Eugene Terry Blanche, vowed to use all means, including violence, to make sure that apartheid was not weakened. The United Democratic Front UDF , which was formed in late 1983 and the National Front NF aimed to use nonviolent means to persuade the government to withdraw its constitutional proposals and do away with apartheid. The UDF membership included, Bishop Desmond Tutu and the Reverend Allan Boesak, who emerged as its prime spokesmen. Black trade unions meanwhile resorted to economic and political protests. For example, The National Union of Mineworkers NUM , formed in 1983 by Cyril Ramaphosa, successfully brought work in mines to a stop in a dispute over wage increases. By end of 1985, 879, fatalities and 8000 arrests were linked to political unrest. ANC and UDF were banned. Meanwhile, Supporters of the Zulu-dominated Inkatha Freedom Party IFP and the banned ANC clashed in an upsurge of "black-on-black" violence that would cause as many as 10,000 deaths by 1994. President Botha resigned under pressure on August 14, 1989, the Electoral College named de Klerk to succeed him in a five-year term as president. In October 1989, De Klerk released Walter Sisulu and others except Mandela. He announced on February 2, 1990, the impending release of Mandela and unbanning of the ANC, the PAC, and the SACP, and the removal of restrictions on the UDF and other legal political organizations. Mandela was released on February 11, 1990, at age 71 after 27 years in prison. ANC officials elected Mandela deputy president in March 1990, under ailing president, Oliver Tambo. Between June 5, 1991 and June 17, 1991, the government repealed the pillars of apartheid, the Land Act of 1913, the Group Areas Act of 1950 and Population Registration Act of 1950, the most infamous, which had authorized the registration by race of newborn babies and immigrants . Most international sanctions were lifted soon after the Population Registration Act, Group Areas Act, and Land Acts were repealed.


ANC officials elected Mandela deputy president in March 1990, under ailing president, Oliver Tambo. Between June 5, 1991 and June 17, 1991, the government repealed the pillars of apartheid, the Land Act of 1913, the Group Areas Act of 1950 and Population Registration Act of 1950, the most infamous, which had authorized the registration by race of newborn babies and immigrants . Most international sanctions were lifted soon after the Population Registration Act, Group Areas Act, and Land Acts were repealed. In mid-1992 due to escalating violence, by IFP supporters on ANC sympathizers in Boipatong delayed the process of negotiation for elections. On March 5, 1993, Chris Hani, the popular general secretary of the South African Communist Party SACP , was murdered threatening the process again. On April 12, 1994, a team headed by former British foreign secretary Lord Carrington and former United States secretary of state Henry Kissinger attempted in vain to break the logjam that was keeping the IFP out of the elections. However, on April 19, Buthelezi--under intenseKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 100 pressure from trusted local and international figures including a Kenyan diplomat professor Washington Okumu, relented and agreed to allow the IFP to be placed on the ballot. When the elections finally took place on schedule, beginning on April 26, 1994, ANC won 62.6 percent of the vote; the NP, 20.4 percent; and the IFP, 10.5 percent. Mandela was unanimously elected president by the National Assembly on May 9, 1994, in Cape Town. He was inaugurated on May 10 at ceremonies in Pretoria. Key South African Nationalists. Nelson Mandela Nelson Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in Umtata, to a Thembu royal family of Transkei. His forename Rolihlahla, means "troublemaker". Later he was given a clans name, Mandiba. His father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa, was a local chief and councillor to the monarch. In 1926, Gadla was sacked for corruption. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, a member of the amaMpemvu clan of Xhosa.


His father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa, was a local chief and councillor to the monarch. In 1926, Gadla was sacked for corruption. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, a member of the amaMpemvu clan of Xhosa. At a local Methodist school when he was about seven, he was baptised and given the English forename of "Nelson". His father died of an undiagnosed ailment when he was nine. Aged 16, he underwent the circumcision. Mandela joined Clarkebury Boarding Institute in Engcobo, the best secondary school for black Africans in Thembuland. In 1937, he moved to Healdtown, the Wesleyan college in Fort Beaufort where he took an interest in boxing and running. Mandela joined Fort Hare University, where he met Oliver Tambo, a long time friend. He was studying Bachelor of Arts but was expelled in his first year for being involved in a Students' Representative Council boycott against university policies. Mandela relocated to Johannesburg, fearing early forced marriage, where met with his friend and mentor, Walter Sisulu. After 1948 Mandela began actively participating in politics. He led in the ANC's 1952 Defiance Campaign as secretary General of the youth league. Mandela and 150 other participants in the freedom charter adoption were arrested on 5 December 1956 and charged with treason. In 1961 Mandela became leader of the ANC's armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe Spear of the Nation . He coordinated sabotage campaigns against military and government targets. On 5 August 1962 Mandela was arrested and was imprisoned in the Johannesburg Fort. On 11 July 1963 police arrested other prominent ANC leaders at Rivonia, north of Johannesburg. Together with Mandela, they were charged with capital crimes of sabotage at the Rivonia Trial. All were sentenced to life imprisonment on 12 June 1964 on Robben Island. Mandela remained there for the next 18 of his 27 years in prison. In March 1982 Mandela was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison, along with other senior ANC leaders. In 1988 Mandela was moved to Victor Verster Prison where he remained until his release on 11 February 1990.


In 1920 he declined a scholarship to University of Fort Hare to provide financial support for his mother. In 1928 he became secretary of the African Teacher's Association and in 1933 its president. He was also active in missionary work. He became chief in1936, until removed from this office by the government in 1952 due to what colonial authority called conflict of interest. In 1944 Luthuli joined the African National Congress ANC . In 1945 he was elected to the Committee of the KwaZulu Province Provincial Division of ANC. A month later Luthuli was elected president-general of ANC. In 1955, he attended an ANC conference only to be arrested and charged with treason a few months later, along with 155 others. In December 1957, Luthuli was released and the charges against him dropped. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 102 Luthuli s leadership of the ANC covered the period of violent disputes between the party's "Africanist" and "Charterist" wings. In 1962 he was elected Rector of the University of Glasgow by the students, serving until 1965. In 1962 he published an autobiography titled: LET MY PEOPLE GO In July 1967, at the age of 69, he was fatally injured in an accident near his home in Stanger. Methods used by nationalists in South Africa in their struggle for liberation from white minority rule. A They used force to fight for their independence. B Africans used mass media to articulate their grievances, spread propaganda and mobilize the masses. C Riots e.g. the Soweto riots of 1976 against the proposal to make Afrikaner Boer language the medium of instruction in all schools. D There were demonstrations against Press Laws in 1960 at Sharpeville leading to massacres. E Guerilla fighters trained in Algeria, Ghana etc carried out acts of sabotage like bombing strategic installations and power plants. F The role of the clergy .e.g. Desmond Tutu who bitterly campaigned worldwide against apartheid. G Use of diplomacy and negotiations to convince the whites about the futility of apartheid policy. H Use of slogans such as Freedom Charter 1955 which proclaimed south Africa belonged to all races and called for political, social and economic equality i They sent petitions, delegations to international forum.