Water in the sweat evaporates AUTHOR latent heat of vaporisation from the body and a cooling effectresults. Hair and Erector pili MusclesWhen the body temperature lowers the erector pili muscles arestimulated to contract. This makes the hairs to stand erect on thebody surface, thus trapping more air. Air, being a bad conductor ofheat insulates the body against heat loss AUTHOR , when it is hot the erector pili muscle relaxes,thus trapping little air hence heat can be lost from the body surface. Blood VesselsWhen body temperature lowers blood vessels in the skin constrict vasoconstriction and blood is diverted to a shunt system. Thisreduces blood flow to the skin and more blood is stored in thespleen as an adaptation to lose less heat. Dilation of blood vessels vasodilation increases blood flow to the skin encouraging heatloss when body temperature is too high. NAME : Thick subcutaneous fat is a good insulatoragainst heat loss. Animals in cold areas have thick subcutaneousfatty layers for this purpose. Organisms in warm areas have thinfatty layer to encourage more heat loss to environment. Once the temperature changes are detected AUTHOR , the hypothalamus sends impulses to the appropriateresponding tissues of the skin that responds as shown in figure 4.9.One feature characteristic of mammals is that they arehomoiotherms endotherms . This refers to the fact their bodytemperature is maintained at a constant body temperature despitewide fluctuations in the temperature of the external environment. Lower vertebrates and invertebrates have a body temperature thatdepends much more on the external temperature. Their bodytemperatures are within a few degrees of that of the environment. These animals are called poikilotherms ectotherms . One majorproblem facing these animals is how to conserve this heat andmaintain an optimum body temperature. Homoiotherms and poikilotherms gain or lose heat throughtheir body surfaces skin AUTHOR , conduction, convection and evaporation. Animals regulate their body temperature AUTHOR their body temperature mainly byphysiological activities. These includes, depending on internalsources of heat. Because of this, they are described asendothermic.


One majorproblem facing these animals is how to conserve this heat andmaintain an optimum body temperature. Homoiotherms and poikilotherms gain or lose heat throughtheir body surfaces skin AUTHOR , conduction, convection and evaporation. Animals regulate their body temperature AUTHOR their body temperature mainly byphysiological activities. These includes, depending on internalsources of heat. Because of this, they are described asendothermic. Poikilotherms rely more on heat derived from theenvironment than metabolic heat in order to raise their bodytemperature and are described as ectothermic. Metabolic activities of the body are increased to raise heatproduction when the body temperature is low. These metabolicactivities are lowered when the body temperature is to be lowered. Shivering is an involuntary rhythm of contraction of muscles thatserves to generate heat during low temperatures. It is initiated bythe hypothalamus. Fig. 4.9: A homeostatic control of body temperature in a mammalIncreased metabolic rate of the liver generates extra heatwhich is distributed throughout the body. Insulatory mechanisms also control the extent of heat gainor heat loss through the physical processes of heat transfer. Theseinclude hair movements, sweating and dilation or constriction ofsuperficial blood vessels as shown in the flow chart in figure 4.9.There are many behavioural activities that organismsperform in order to regulate body temperature. These areclustering, coiling, putting on heavy clothes, burrowing, basking,migrating, hibernation and aestivation. Migration is seen in manyhomoitherms and poikilotherms where there is a movementcovering long distances AUTHOR avoid unfavourableclimatic factors or food shortage. Other animals hibernate go intodeep sleep due to cold conditions or aestivate go into deep sleepdue to dry and hot conditions to avoid the harsh environmentalconditions. Ectotherms or poikilotherms have bodies that easily gain orlose heat from or to the enviroment. They will move toenvironments where temperature is close to their optimum. Lizardsand snakes, bask on rocks in order to warm their bodies on cool,sunny mornings. Heat is gained through conduction and radiation. On hot days they move to cooler places in burrows or under shades. Body size and heat lossThe amount of heat produced AUTHOR animalbody is proportional to its mass.


They will move toenvironments where temperature is close to their optimum. Lizardsand snakes, bask on rocks in order to warm their bodies on cool,sunny mornings. Heat is gained through conduction and radiation. On hot days they move to cooler places in burrows or under shades. Body size and heat lossThe amount of heat produced AUTHOR animalbody is proportional to its mass. Large animals produce more heatthan smaller ones. However, the rate of heat loss from the animalbody is directly proportional to its surface area to volume ratio. Large animals have a smaller surface area to volume ratiocompared to small animals e.g. the surface area to volume ratio ofan adult elephant is about 70 times smaller than that of a rat. Thismeans that each cubic unit of a rat s body has 70 times more areaavailable for heat loss as compared to an elephant. A rat willtherefore lose body heat much faster than an elephant. It follows that in order to maintain a given body temperature,smaller animals will require to raise their metabolic rate to a muchhigher level than large animals. Therefore the smaller animalsrequire a plentiful supply of food to provide the necessaryrespiratory substrates. In addition to the mechanisms outlined above animals alsohave developed adaptive features that help in body temperatureregulation. These are structural adaptations which control theextent of heat loss or gain on a long term basis. They includepossession of fur or hair and large quantities subcutaneous fatlayers as in the polar bear. Desert animals like the camel possesstissues tolerant to high temperatures. Study Question4. People in the tropics tend to be thin and tall compared to thosein the arctic regions who tend to be short and plump. Account forthese observations in relation to body temperature regulation. Osmoregulation Water and NAME The relative amounts of water and solutes in the blood, tissue fluidand protoplasm determine their osmotic pressure. If the osmoticpressure of these fluids were to change, drastic events would occursuch that metabolic activities of the cells would be hampered.


People in the tropics tend to be thin and tall compared to thosein the arctic regions who tend to be short and plump. Account forthese observations in relation to body temperature regulation. Osmoregulation Water and NAME The relative amounts of water and solutes in the blood, tissue fluidand protoplasm determine their osmotic pressure. If the osmoticpressure of these fluids were to change, drastic events would occursuch that metabolic activities of the cells would be hampered. Forexample, if the osmotic pressure of the tissue fluid falls below thatof cells, the cells will take in water AUTHOR , swell and may burst. On the other hand, cells would lose water and shrink if the osmoticpressure of tissue fluid was higher than that of the cells. Osmoregulation attempts to maintain an optimum osmotic pressurein the body tissues and fluids that is favourable to normalfunctioning of cells. The body gains water through drinking, food taken in andmetabolic water and loses through sweat, faeces, urine and exhaledair. These losses and gains produce corresponding changes in thequantities of salts and water. The balance is mainly carried out bythe kidney and neuro-endocrine hypothalamus and pituitary gland system. When the osmotic pressure of the blood rises as a result ofdehydration, the hypothalamus is stimulated and sends impulsesto the pituitary gland which releases a hormone called antidiuretichormone ADH or vasopressin into the blood. On reaching thekidney, the distal convoluted tubules and collecting tubules becomemore permeable to water which is then reabsorbed into the bloodstream. Consequently the osmotic pressure of the blood is loweredand concentrated urine is produced. When the osmotic pressure ofthe blood falls due to a large intake of water, the pituitary gland isless stimulated. This results to reduced release of ADH into theblood stream. The kidney tubules become less permeable to waterand less reabsorption of water into blood stream takes place. Theosmotic pressure of blood rises and dilute urine is produced. Regulation of Ionic ContentSalts dissolve in water and then undergo dissociation to form ions. For example sodium chloride forms sodium Na and chloride Cl- ions.


This results to reduced release of ADH into theblood stream. The kidney tubules become less permeable to waterand less reabsorption of water into blood stream takes place. Theosmotic pressure of blood rises and dilute urine is produced. Regulation of Ionic ContentSalts dissolve in water and then undergo dissociation to form ions. For example sodium chloride forms sodium Na and chloride Cl- ions. These ions and many others such as potassium K ,magnesium Mg2 , calcium Ca2 and phosphates PO4 3- areimportant in body processes like protein synthesis, respiration,nervous co-ordination and muscle contraction. Their balance in bodymust be regulated within narrow ranges of their optimumconcentrations for efficient functioning of these processes. A hormone called aldosterone, which is produced AUTHOR , regulates the level of sodium ions. When the level of sodiumions is low in the blood, adrenal glands are stimulated to releasealdosterone into the blood which then stimulate loop of Henle ofkidney and the gut to reabsorb sodium ion into the blood. If thesodium ions concentration in the blood rises above optimum level,adrenal glands produce less aldosterone into the blood and lessamounts of sodium ions are absorbed. It should be realised that assodium ions are absorbed in the blood, chloride ions follow in orderto neutralise the charge on the sodium ions. Diabetes InsipidusWhen the pituitary gland is unable to produce antidiuretic hormoneor produces it in inadequate amount, the kidney tubules are unableto reabsorb water from the glomerular filtrate. This leads toproduction of a large amount of dilute urine a condition known asdiuresis . The patient becomes dehydrated and has to compensatefor the loss AUTHOR water. NAME of the Skin in Salt and Water balanceAlthough the skin is not the main organ of osmoregulation, it hassweat glands which secrete waste products of metabolism such aswater, mineral salts especially sodium chloride. These wastes arelost in form of sweat through the pores in the skin. About 99 of the sweat is water while the remaining 1 ismainly mineral salts. The water and mineral salts lost in the sweatcontribute to osmotic changes of the body cells and fluids.


The patient becomes dehydrated and has to compensatefor the loss AUTHOR water. NAME of the Skin in Salt and Water balanceAlthough the skin is not the main organ of osmoregulation, it hassweat glands which secrete waste products of metabolism such aswater, mineral salts especially sodium chloride. These wastes arelost in form of sweat through the pores in the skin. About 99 of the sweat is water while the remaining 1 ismainly mineral salts. The water and mineral salts lost in the sweatcontribute to osmotic changes of the body cells and fluids. On a hotday, the body loses a lot of water and some mineral salts, resultingin a sensation of thirst being felt due to tissue dehydration. Theosmotic balance is, however, restored AUTHOR , and intake of mineral salts in the diet. Regulation of NAME sugars, galactose and fructose taken to the liver from thealimentary canal AUTHOR converted to glucose. Glucose is then broken down to release energy and excess isconverted to glycogen and stored in the liver or converted into fatsand stored in adipose tissues. Some glucose flows in the generalcirculation of blood and is maintained within a narrow range of 90to 100 mg per 100 cm3 of blood. Fluctuations do occur due to largesupply or increased utilisation of glucose. The liver carries out the control of these events through twohormones produced AUTHOR glucagon arethe two pancreatic hormones produced AUTHOR thepancreas in the islets of langerhans and released into the bloodstream. Their effects are carried out in the liver. Functions of insulinin many cases are antagonistic to those of glucagon. For example,high concentration of insulin in the liver converts excess glucose toglycogen for storage, inhibits change of glycogen to glucose,converts glucose into fats and increases breakdown of glucose torelease energy. Glucagon at high concentration increasesbreakdown of glycogen into glucose, also fats, proteins and aminoacids to glucose. Generally insulin tends to lower glucoseconcentration in the blood while glucagon increases it. It alsomeans that a low sugar content in the blood stream stimulatespancreas to release glycagon and inhibits production of insulin andvice versa.


4.11 a Name the structures labelled A to F. b i Explain how the hair in human beings helps in keepingthe body warm. Ii Explain other methods AUTHOR to keep thebody warm.2. Figure 4.12 illustrates a mammalian nephron. Use it to answerthe questions that follow. A Explain what happens to the concentration of sodium ionsbetween 1 and 2. B What would happen to the functioning of portion 3 in theabsence of anti-diuretic hormone ADH . C What would happen at point 4 if there was partialconstriction at point 5? D Suggest adaptive structural differences between nephronsof a desert animal for example, kangaroo rat, and those of afresh water fish, for example tilapia. Fig. 4.123. A State two advantages which a constant temperature givesmammals and birds over other animals. B How does body size affect heat loss in an animal? C How does sweating increase heat loss in mammal? 4. The graph on page 105 shows the relation ship between skintemperature, hypothalamic temperature and rate of energy lossby evaporation for a person in a warm chamber kept at 40OC.The person drank iced water at the points labelled X, Y, Z. a Suggest one reason why the temperature and evaporationrate remained relatively constant during the first 20minutes. B From the graphs, explain the relationships betweenhypothalamic temperature and rate of sweating. C Suggest why the skin temperature rises shortly afterdrinking iced water. Ei so amma sf 94 iow omyFig. 4.13Fig. 4.145. A What is homeostasis? B Explain the homeostatic role of kidney in mammals.6. The quantity of urine passed per day in four mammals of thesame species, in their natural habitats was S, T, U and V. Theresults are shown in figure 4.14.Which of the four animals is likely to be living in a fresh waterlake? Explain the reasons for your answer.7. The surface area to volume ratio of three animals A, B and Cwas determined. The amount of urine produced per hour bythese animals in a specific habitat was also determined. The results are as shown in the table below.


Explain the reasons for your answer.7. The surface area to volume ratio of three animals A, B and Cwas determined. The amount of urine produced per hour bythese animals in a specific habitat was also determined. The results are as shown in the table below. Study the data and; a Plot three graphs on the same axis of the amount of urineproduced against time. B Name the animal that is likely to be more active at anygiven time. Give reasons for your answer. C Which animal is likely to lose less water in a desertenvironment?8. A Describe how carbon IV oxide is removed from the bloodin the lungs. B Explain the role of the kidney in the purification of blood.9. A Explain the term excretion and name the parts that carryout the excretory process in fresh water porotozoa, insects,fish and mammals. B List the excretory products produced AUTHOR named above in each organism.10. Using named examples, explain how animals regulate theirbody temperature and relate this to their body size.11. The internal environment of an organism requires to be keptconstant for the survival of the organism. Discuss.12. Explain the cause of diabetes mellitus. How can it be controlled?13. Explain the role of the following in homeostasis: a Skin. B Liver. C Hypothalamus.14. What is the difference between homoitherms and ectotherms poikilotherms ? 15. A Name the conditions under which urine production isincreased in mammals. B What is meant AUTHOR ? C What is diabetes insipidus? D Describe how the kidney functions as an osmoregulatoryorgan.16. Name two common diseases that affect the liver and the kidney. For each of the diseases given above, describe the mode ofinfection and control measures.17. A Name any four organic waste products in plants. B Describe the mechanisms of excretion AUTHOR.


B What is meant AUTHOR ? C What is diabetes insipidus? D Describe how the kidney functions as an osmoregulatoryorgan.16. Name two common diseases that affect the liver and the kidney. For each of the diseases given above, describe the mode ofinfection and control measures.17. A Name any four organic waste products in plants. B Describe the mechanisms of excretion AUTHOR Water 7Active Transport 1, 8Acute Bronchitis 68Adenosine Triphosphate 74, 75Adhesive Force 12Adrenal Glands 103Aerenchyma Tissue 52Aerobic Respiration 74Aestivate 100Agglutinins 35Agranulocytes 34Aldosterone 92, 101Allergic Reactions 42Anaerobic Respiration 77Angiosperms 11Antibodies 40Anti-coagulant 37Antidiuretic Hormone 92Antigens 40Aorta 19Apical Meristem 3Application of NAME 78Arteries 25Arteriosclerosis 32Artificial NAME 40Artificial NAME 41Asthma 67Atrio-ventricular Valve 22Attenuation 41Behavioural Activities 100Blood 18Blood NAME 36Blood Groups 36 NAME 37Bowman s Capsule 90Bronchitis 68Caffeine 84Cannabis 84Capillaries 25Capillarity 12Capillary Attraction 9Carboxyhaemoglobin 34Cardiac Muscles 21, 24Carriers 9Chlorenchyma 6Chronic Bronchitis 68Circulation in the Heart 22Circulatory System 18Cocaine 84Cohesion Force 9, 12Colchicine 84Collecting Tubule 90Companion Cell 17Composition of Blood 32Concentration Gradient 7, 8Contractile Vacuoles 85Cornified Layer 86Cortex 4, 6Cortex Collenchyma 6Counter NAME 57, 92Cristae 74Cuticular Transpiration 9Deamination 95Defects of NAME 31Dermis 85Detoxification 95Diabetes Insipidus 101Diabetes Mellitus 103Diaphragm 61Diastole 23Dicotyledon Roots 4Dicotyledon Stem 7 NAME 3Diffusion 1Diffusion 48Diffusion, 9Diseases of the NAME 67Drug Abuse 84Egestion 83Endodermis 4Epidermis 6, 85Erector NAME 87, 98Ethyl Alcohol 75Excretion and Homeostasis 83Excretion in Animals 85Excretion in Plants 83Excretory Products 84Expiratory NAME 65Fermentation 77Function of lenticels 52Function of NAME 88Gaseous Exchange 48Gaseous Exchange in Amphibians 58Gaseous Exchange in Animals 53Gaseous Exchange in Insects 54Gaseous Exchange in Mammals 59Gaseous Exchange in Plants 48, 51Gaseous Exchange in Protozoa 53Gill Filaments 56Gill Rakers 56Gills 85Glomerular Filtrate 91Glomerulus 90Glucagon 102Glycolysis 75Grafts 43Granular layer 86Granulocytes 34Guard Cells 50Gum Arabica 84Gymnosperms 11Haemocoel 18Haemoglobin elimination 95Haemolytic Disease 38Heartbeat 24Hepatic vortal vein 94Hepatitis 96Hibernate 100Higher Organisms 1Homeostasis 83Homeostasis 97Homoiotherms 99Human NAME AIDS 37Hydrophytes 51Hypertension 32Hypothalamus 98, 101Immune Responses 40Importance of NAME 48Insulatory mechanisms 100Insulin 102, 103Internal Respiration 73Islets of Langerhans 102Khat 84Kidney 85Kidney Diseases 93Kidney Failure 93Kidney Stones 93Lactic Acid 75Leaf Fall 13Lenticular Transpiration 9Lignin 7Liver 85Liver Diseases 96Liver structure 93Loop of Henle 90, 92Lower Organisms 1Lung Cancer 69Lung Volumes 65Lungs 85Lymph 39 NAME 38Lymphatic System 38Lysins 35Malpighian Layer 86Mammalian NAME 19Mammalian Skin 85Means of Transport 1Mechanism of Breathing 61Medulla Oblongata 65Mineral Salts 8, 9Mitochondria 74Monocotyledon Roots 4Monocotyledon Stem 3, 7Myogenic 24Negative Feedback 97Nephridia 85Nephritis 93Nephron 98, 90Nephron in Excretion 90Operculum 56Opsonins 35Organ Transplants 43Organic Products of Photosynthesis 17Osmoregulation 100Osmosis 1, 7, 9Osmotic Pressure 7Oxygen Debt 77Oxyhaemoglobin 33Pacemaker 24Pancreas 102Papain 84Parenchyma Tissue 6Pericardium 21Pericycle 4Phagocytes 34Phloem 1, 4, 17Piliferous Layer 4Pith 7Plasma 32Platelets 35Platyhelminthes 85Pneumatophores 52Pneumonia 69Poikilotherms 99Polymorphs 34Positive Feedback 98Posterior NAME 29Potometer 16Primary Functions of Roots 2Principles of Homeostasis 97Products of Photosynthesis 7Products of Photosynthesis 17Protein Fibrils 17Protozoa 84Proximal convoluted tubule 90Pteridophytes 11Pulmonary Circulation 19Pulmonary Tuberculosis 69Quinine 84Red NAME 33Regulation of NAME 101Regulation of NAME 95Reserve Volume 65Respiration 73Respiratory Quotient 80Respiratory Substrates 79Respiratory Surface 48Rhesus Factor 38Root Cap 3Root NAME 4, 7, 8Root HairsRoot Pressure 9, 12Rubber 84Sclerenchyma 6Sebaceous Glands 87Second Phase 76Semilunar Valves 22Sieve Plates 17Significance of Respiration 12, 74Sino NAME 24Skin and Thermo-regulation 98Specialised Stems 5Spiracles 54Spongy Mesophyll 9, 10Stem 5, 6Stomata 50Stomata and Habitats of Plants 51Stomatal Transpiration 9Structure of the Heart 22Subcutaneous Layer 87, 99Suberised Epidermis 4Supply of Materials 1Sweat Glands 87, 98Systemic Circulation.


Name two common diseases that affect the liver and the kidney. For each of the diseases given above, describe the mode ofinfection and control measures.17. A Name any four organic waste products in plants. B Describe the mechanisms of excretion AUTHOR Water 7Active Transport 1, 8Acute Bronchitis 68Adenosine Triphosphate 74, 75Adhesive Force 12Adrenal Glands 103Aerenchyma Tissue 52Aerobic Respiration 74Aestivate 100Agglutinins 35Agranulocytes 34Aldosterone 92, 101Allergic Reactions 42Anaerobic Respiration 77Angiosperms 11Antibodies 40Anti-coagulant 37Antidiuretic Hormone 92Antigens 40Aorta 19Apical Meristem 3Application of NAME 78Arteries 25Arteriosclerosis 32Artificial NAME 40Artificial NAME 41Asthma 67Atrio-ventricular Valve 22Attenuation 41Behavioural Activities 100Blood 18Blood NAME 36Blood Groups 36 NAME 37Bowman s Capsule 90Bronchitis 68Caffeine 84Cannabis 84Capillaries 25Capillarity 12Capillary Attraction 9Carboxyhaemoglobin 34Cardiac Muscles 21, 24Carriers 9Chlorenchyma 6Chronic Bronchitis 68Circulation in the Heart 22Circulatory System 18Cocaine 84Cohesion Force 9, 12Colchicine 84Collecting Tubule 90Companion Cell 17Composition of Blood 32Concentration Gradient 7, 8Contractile Vacuoles 85Cornified Layer 86Cortex 4, 6Cortex Collenchyma 6Counter NAME 57, 92Cristae 74Cuticular Transpiration 9Deamination 95Defects of NAME 31Dermis 85Detoxification 95Diabetes Insipidus 101Diabetes Mellitus 103Diaphragm 61Diastole 23Dicotyledon Roots 4Dicotyledon Stem 7 NAME 3Diffusion 1Diffusion 48Diffusion, 9Diseases of the NAME 67Drug Abuse 84Egestion 83Endodermis 4Epidermis 6, 85Erector NAME 87, 98Ethyl Alcohol 75Excretion and Homeostasis 83Excretion in Animals 85Excretion in Plants 83Excretory Products 84Expiratory NAME 65Fermentation 77Function of lenticels 52Function of NAME 88Gaseous Exchange 48Gaseous Exchange in Amphibians 58Gaseous Exchange in Animals 53Gaseous Exchange in Insects 54Gaseous Exchange in Mammals 59Gaseous Exchange in Plants 48, 51Gaseous Exchange in Protozoa 53Gill Filaments 56Gill Rakers 56Gills 85Glomerular Filtrate 91Glomerulus 90Glucagon 102Glycolysis 75Grafts 43Granular layer 86Granulocytes 34Guard Cells 50Gum Arabica 84Gymnosperms 11Haemocoel 18Haemoglobin elimination 95Haemolytic Disease 38Heartbeat 24Hepatic vortal vein 94Hepatitis 96Hibernate 100Higher Organisms 1Homeostasis 83Homeostasis 97Homoiotherms 99Human NAME AIDS 37Hydrophytes 51Hypertension 32Hypothalamus 98, 101Immune Responses 40Importance of NAME 48Insulatory mechanisms 100Insulin 102, 103Internal Respiration 73Islets of Langerhans 102Khat 84Kidney 85Kidney Diseases 93Kidney Failure 93Kidney Stones 93Lactic Acid 75Leaf Fall 13Lenticular Transpiration 9Lignin 7Liver 85Liver Diseases 96Liver structure 93Loop of Henle 90, 92Lower Organisms 1Lung Cancer 69Lung Volumes 65Lungs 85Lymph 39 NAME 38Lymphatic System 38Lysins 35Malpighian Layer 86Mammalian NAME 19Mammalian Skin 85Means of Transport 1Mechanism of Breathing 61Medulla Oblongata 65Mineral Salts 8, 9Mitochondria 74Monocotyledon Roots 4Monocotyledon Stem 3, 7Myogenic 24Negative Feedback 97Nephridia 85Nephritis 93Nephron 98, 90Nephron in Excretion 90Operculum 56Opsonins 35Organ Transplants 43Organic Products of Photosynthesis 17Osmoregulation 100Osmosis 1, 7, 9Osmotic Pressure 7Oxygen Debt 77Oxyhaemoglobin 33Pacemaker 24Pancreas 102Papain 84Parenchyma Tissue 6Pericardium 21Pericycle 4Phagocytes 34Phloem 1, 4, 17Piliferous Layer 4Pith 7Plasma 32Platelets 35Platyhelminthes 85Pneumatophores 52Pneumonia 69Poikilotherms 99Polymorphs 34Positive Feedback 98Posterior NAME 29Potometer 16Primary Functions of Roots 2Principles of Homeostasis 97Products of Photosynthesis 7Products of Photosynthesis 17Protein Fibrils 17Protozoa 84Proximal convoluted tubule 90Pteridophytes 11Pulmonary Circulation 19Pulmonary Tuberculosis 69Quinine 84Red NAME 33Regulation of NAME 101Regulation of NAME 95Reserve Volume 65Respiration 73Respiratory Quotient 80Respiratory Substrates 79Respiratory Surface 48Rhesus Factor 38Root Cap 3Root NAME 4, 7, 8Root HairsRoot Pressure 9, 12Rubber 84Sclerenchyma 6Sebaceous Glands 87Second Phase 76Semilunar Valves 22Sieve Plates 17Significance of Respiration 12, 74Sino NAME 24Skin and Thermo-regulation 98Specialised Stems 5Spiracles 54Spongy Mesophyll 9, 10Stem 5, 6Stomata 50Stomata and Habitats of Plants 51Stomatal Transpiration 9Structure of the Heart 22Subcutaneous Layer 87, 99Suberised Epidermis 4Supply of Materials 1Sweat Glands 87, 98Systemic Circulation. 19Systole 23, 36Thermoregulation 95Thromboplastin 36Thrombosis 31Tissue Fluid 39Tissue Respiration 73, 74Trachea 59Tracheal System 55Tracheids 10Tracheoles 54Translocation of NAME 17Transpiration 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 52Transpiration Pull 11Transpiration Rate 14Transpiration Stream 9, 11Transport 1Transport NAME 18Transport NAME 18Transport of Substances 1Types of Immunity 40Types of Respiration 74Ultra Filtration 25, 26Ultrafiltration 91 NAME 37Universal Recipient 37Uptake of NAME 2Vaccination 41Varicose Veins 32Vascular Bundle 1, 3, 4, 7Veins 25Ventricles 22Venules 27Vessels 10White NAME 34Xerophytes 51Xylem 1, 4, 10Xylem Vessels 10Xylem Vessels 7Zone of NAME 3 NAME Book s a well witonbiology book hat aime at equipping students with knowledge, attudes and ils that can enable them explo tho environment responseis the second book in the secondary biology seras published AUTHOR.


A Name any four organic waste products in plants. B Describe the mechanisms of excretion AUTHOR Water 7Active Transport 1, 8Acute Bronchitis 68Adenosine Triphosphate 74, 75Adhesive Force 12Adrenal Glands 103Aerenchyma Tissue 52Aerobic Respiration 74Aestivate 100Agglutinins 35Agranulocytes 34Aldosterone 92, 101Allergic Reactions 42Anaerobic Respiration 77Angiosperms 11Antibodies 40Anti-coagulant 37Antidiuretic Hormone 92Antigens 40Aorta 19Apical Meristem 3Application of NAME 78Arteries 25Arteriosclerosis 32Artificial NAME 40Artificial NAME 41Asthma 67Atrio-ventricular Valve 22Attenuation 41Behavioural Activities 100Blood 18Blood NAME 36Blood Groups 36 NAME 37Bowman s Capsule 90Bronchitis 68Caffeine 84Cannabis 84Capillaries 25Capillarity 12Capillary Attraction 9Carboxyhaemoglobin 34Cardiac Muscles 21, 24Carriers 9Chlorenchyma 6Chronic Bronchitis 68Circulation in the Heart 22Circulatory System 18Cocaine 84Cohesion Force 9, 12Colchicine 84Collecting Tubule 90Companion Cell 17Composition of Blood 32Concentration Gradient 7, 8Contractile Vacuoles 85Cornified Layer 86Cortex 4, 6Cortex Collenchyma 6Counter NAME 57, 92Cristae 74Cuticular Transpiration 9Deamination 95Defects of NAME 31Dermis 85Detoxification 95Diabetes Insipidus 101Diabetes Mellitus 103Diaphragm 61Diastole 23Dicotyledon Roots 4Dicotyledon Stem 7 NAME 3Diffusion 1Diffusion 48Diffusion, 9Diseases of the NAME 67Drug Abuse 84Egestion 83Endodermis 4Epidermis 6, 85Erector NAME 87, 98Ethyl Alcohol 75Excretion and Homeostasis 83Excretion in Animals 85Excretion in Plants 83Excretory Products 84Expiratory NAME 65Fermentation 77Function of lenticels 52Function of NAME 88Gaseous Exchange 48Gaseous Exchange in Amphibians 58Gaseous Exchange in Animals 53Gaseous Exchange in Insects 54Gaseous Exchange in Mammals 59Gaseous Exchange in Plants 48, 51Gaseous Exchange in Protozoa 53Gill Filaments 56Gill Rakers 56Gills 85Glomerular Filtrate 91Glomerulus 90Glucagon 102Glycolysis 75Grafts 43Granular layer 86Granulocytes 34Guard Cells 50Gum Arabica 84Gymnosperms 11Haemocoel 18Haemoglobin elimination 95Haemolytic Disease 38Heartbeat 24Hepatic vortal vein 94Hepatitis 96Hibernate 100Higher Organisms 1Homeostasis 83Homeostasis 97Homoiotherms 99Human NAME AIDS 37Hydrophytes 51Hypertension 32Hypothalamus 98, 101Immune Responses 40Importance of NAME 48Insulatory mechanisms 100Insulin 102, 103Internal Respiration 73Islets of Langerhans 102Khat 84Kidney 85Kidney Diseases 93Kidney Failure 93Kidney Stones 93Lactic Acid 75Leaf Fall 13Lenticular Transpiration 9Lignin 7Liver 85Liver Diseases 96Liver structure 93Loop of Henle 90, 92Lower Organisms 1Lung Cancer 69Lung Volumes 65Lungs 85Lymph 39 NAME 38Lymphatic System 38Lysins 35Malpighian Layer 86Mammalian NAME 19Mammalian Skin 85Means of Transport 1Mechanism of Breathing 61Medulla Oblongata 65Mineral Salts 8, 9Mitochondria 74Monocotyledon Roots 4Monocotyledon Stem 3, 7Myogenic 24Negative Feedback 97Nephridia 85Nephritis 93Nephron 98, 90Nephron in Excretion 90Operculum 56Opsonins 35Organ Transplants 43Organic Products of Photosynthesis 17Osmoregulation 100Osmosis 1, 7, 9Osmotic Pressure 7Oxygen Debt 77Oxyhaemoglobin 33Pacemaker 24Pancreas 102Papain 84Parenchyma Tissue 6Pericardium 21Pericycle 4Phagocytes 34Phloem 1, 4, 17Piliferous Layer 4Pith 7Plasma 32Platelets 35Platyhelminthes 85Pneumatophores 52Pneumonia 69Poikilotherms 99Polymorphs 34Positive Feedback 98Posterior NAME 29Potometer 16Primary Functions of Roots 2Principles of Homeostasis 97Products of Photosynthesis 7Products of Photosynthesis 17Protein Fibrils 17Protozoa 84Proximal convoluted tubule 90Pteridophytes 11Pulmonary Circulation 19Pulmonary Tuberculosis 69Quinine 84Red NAME 33Regulation of NAME 101Regulation of NAME 95Reserve Volume 65Respiration 73Respiratory Quotient 80Respiratory Substrates 79Respiratory Surface 48Rhesus Factor 38Root Cap 3Root NAME 4, 7, 8Root HairsRoot Pressure 9, 12Rubber 84Sclerenchyma 6Sebaceous Glands 87Second Phase 76Semilunar Valves 22Sieve Plates 17Significance of Respiration 12, 74Sino NAME 24Skin and Thermo-regulation 98Specialised Stems 5Spiracles 54Spongy Mesophyll 9, 10Stem 5, 6Stomata 50Stomata and Habitats of Plants 51Stomatal Transpiration 9Structure of the Heart 22Subcutaneous Layer 87, 99Suberised Epidermis 4Supply of Materials 1Sweat Glands 87, 98Systemic Circulation. 19Systole 23, 36Thermoregulation 95Thromboplastin 36Thrombosis 31Tissue Fluid 39Tissue Respiration 73, 74Trachea 59Tracheal System 55Tracheids 10Tracheoles 54Translocation of NAME 17Transpiration 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 52Transpiration Pull 11Transpiration Rate 14Transpiration Stream 9, 11Transport 1Transport NAME 18Transport NAME 18Transport of Substances 1Types of Immunity 40Types of Respiration 74Ultra Filtration 25, 26Ultrafiltration 91 NAME 37Universal Recipient 37Uptake of NAME 2Vaccination 41Varicose Veins 32Vascular Bundle 1, 3, 4, 7Veins 25Ventricles 22Venules 27Vessels 10White NAME 34Xerophytes 51Xylem 1, 4, 10Xylem Vessels 10Xylem Vessels 7Zone of NAME 3 NAME Book s a well witonbiology book hat aime at equipping students with knowledge, attudes and ils that can enable them explo tho environment responseis the second book in the secondary biology seras published AUTHOR adopts the TUPAC system of naming Tho content isin four broad topics namely: Transport in plants animals, Gaseous exchange, Respiration and.


IndexAbsorption of Water 7Active Transport 1, 8Acute Bronchitis 68Adenosine Triphosphate 74, 75Adhesive Force 12Adrenal Glands 103Aerenchyma Tissue 52Aerobic Respiration 74Aestivate 100Agglutinins 35Agranulocytes 34Aldosterone 92, 101Allergic Reactions 42Anaerobic Respiration 77Angiosperms 11Antibodies 40Anti-coagulant 37Antidiuretic Hormone 92Antigens 40Aorta 19Apical Meristem 3Application of NAME 78Arteries 25Arteriosclerosis 32Artificial NAME 40Artificial NAME 41Asthma 67Atrio-ventricular Valve 22Attenuation 41Behavioural Activities 100Blood 18Blood NAME 36Blood Groups 36 NAME 37Bowman s Capsule 90Bronchitis 68Caffeine 84Cannabis 84Capillaries 25Capillarity 12Capillary Attraction 9Carboxyhaemoglobin 34Cardiac Muscles 21, 24Carriers 9Chlorenchyma 6Chronic Bronchitis 68Circulation in the Heart 22Circulatory System 18Cocaine 84Cohesion Force 9, 12Colchicine 84Collecting Tubule 90Companion Cell 17Composition of Blood 32Concentration Gradient 7, 8Contractile Vacuoles 85Cornified Layer 86Cortex 4, 6Cortex Collenchyma 6Counter NAME 57, 92Cristae 74Cuticular Transpiration 9Deamination 95Defects of NAME 31Dermis 85Detoxification 95Diabetes Insipidus 101Diabetes Mellitus 103Diaphragm 61Diastole 23Dicotyledon Roots 4Dicotyledon Stem 7 NAME 3Diffusion 1Diffusion 48Diffusion, 9Diseases of the NAME 67Drug Abuse 84Egestion 83Endodermis 4Epidermis 6, 85Erector NAME 87, 98Ethyl Alcohol 75Excretion and Homeostasis 83Excretion in Animals 85Excretion in Plants 83Excretory Products 84Expiratory NAME 65Fermentation 77Function of lenticels 52Function of NAME 88Gaseous Exchange 48Gaseous Exchange in Amphibians 58Gaseous Exchange in Animals 53Gaseous Exchange in Insects 54Gaseous Exchange in Mammals 59Gaseous Exchange in Plants 48, 51Gaseous Exchange in Protozoa 53Gill Filaments 56Gill Rakers 56Gills 85Glomerular Filtrate 91Glomerulus 90Glucagon 102Glycolysis 75Grafts 43Granular layer 86Granulocytes 34Guard Cells 50Gum Arabica 84Gymnosperms 11Haemocoel 18Haemoglobin elimination 95Haemolytic Disease 38Heartbeat 24Hepatic vortal vein 94Hepatitis 96Hibernate 100Higher Organisms 1Homeostasis 83Homeostasis 97Homoiotherms 99Human NAME AIDS 37Hydrophytes 51Hypertension 32Hypothalamus 98, 101Immune Responses 40Importance of NAME 48Insulatory mechanisms 100Insulin 102, 103Internal Respiration 73Islets of Langerhans 102Khat 84Kidney 85Kidney Diseases 93Kidney Failure 93Kidney Stones 93Lactic Acid 75Leaf Fall 13Lenticular Transpiration 9Lignin 7Liver 85Liver Diseases 96Liver structure 93Loop of Henle 90, 92Lower Organisms 1Lung Cancer 69Lung Volumes 65Lungs 85Lymph 39 NAME 38Lymphatic System 38Lysins 35Malpighian Layer 86Mammalian NAME 19Mammalian Skin 85Means of Transport 1Mechanism of Breathing 61Medulla Oblongata 65Mineral Salts 8, 9Mitochondria 74Monocotyledon Roots 4Monocotyledon Stem 3, 7Myogenic 24Negative Feedback 97Nephridia 85Nephritis 93Nephron 98, 90Nephron in Excretion 90Operculum 56Opsonins 35Organ Transplants 43Organic Products of Photosynthesis 17Osmoregulation 100Osmosis 1, 7, 9Osmotic Pressure 7Oxygen Debt 77Oxyhaemoglobin 33Pacemaker 24Pancreas 102Papain 84Parenchyma Tissue 6Pericardium 21Pericycle 4Phagocytes 34Phloem 1, 4, 17Piliferous Layer 4Pith 7Plasma 32Platelets 35Platyhelminthes 85Pneumatophores 52Pneumonia 69Poikilotherms 99Polymorphs 34Positive Feedback 98Posterior NAME 29Potometer 16Primary Functions of Roots 2Principles of Homeostasis 97Products of Photosynthesis 7Products of Photosynthesis 17Protein Fibrils 17Protozoa 84Proximal convoluted tubule 90Pteridophytes 11Pulmonary Circulation 19Pulmonary Tuberculosis 69Quinine 84Red NAME 33Regulation of NAME 101Regulation of NAME 95Reserve Volume 65Respiration 73Respiratory Quotient 80Respiratory Substrates 79Respiratory Surface 48Rhesus Factor 38Root Cap 3Root NAME 4, 7, 8Root HairsRoot Pressure 9, 12Rubber 84Sclerenchyma 6Sebaceous Glands 87Second Phase 76Semilunar Valves 22Sieve Plates 17Significance of Respiration 12, 74Sino NAME 24Skin and Thermo-regulation 98Specialised Stems 5Spiracles 54Spongy Mesophyll 9, 10Stem 5, 6Stomata 50Stomata and Habitats of Plants 51Stomatal Transpiration 9Structure of the Heart 22Subcutaneous Layer 87, 99Suberised Epidermis 4Supply of Materials 1Sweat Glands 87, 98Systemic Circulation. 19Systole 23, 36Thermoregulation 95Thromboplastin 36Thrombosis 31Tissue Fluid 39Tissue Respiration 73, 74Trachea 59Tracheal System 55Tracheids 10Tracheoles 54Translocation of NAME 17Transpiration 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 52Transpiration Pull 11Transpiration Rate 14Transpiration Stream 9, 11Transport 1Transport NAME 18Transport NAME 18Transport of Substances 1Types of Immunity 40Types of Respiration 74Ultra Filtration 25, 26Ultrafiltration 91 NAME 37Universal Recipient 37Uptake of NAME 2Vaccination 41Varicose Veins 32Vascular Bundle 1, 3, 4, 7Veins 25Ventricles 22Venules 27Vessels 10White NAME 34Xerophytes 51Xylem 1, 4, 10Xylem Vessels 10Xylem Vessels 7Zone of NAME 3 NAME Book s a well witonbiology book hat aime at equipping students with knowledge, attudes and ils that can enable them explo tho environment responseis the second book in the secondary biology seras published AUTHOR adopts the TUPAC system of naming Tho content isin four broad topics namely: Transport in plants animals, Gaseous exchange, Respiration and. Exeretion, andHomeostasis, Topics ae inveduced n'a simple and precise language and relate to the knowodge ganed eater. To enhance easier understanding of conceps, terminologies areefined belore use.


19Systole 23, 36Thermoregulation 95Thromboplastin 36Thrombosis 31Tissue Fluid 39Tissue Respiration 73, 74Trachea 59Tracheal System 55Tracheids 10Tracheoles 54Translocation of NAME 17Transpiration 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 52Transpiration Pull 11Transpiration Rate 14Transpiration Stream 9, 11Transport 1Transport NAME 18Transport NAME 18Transport of Substances 1Types of Immunity 40Types of Respiration 74Ultra Filtration 25, 26Ultrafiltration 91 NAME 37Universal Recipient 37Uptake of NAME 2Vaccination 41Varicose Veins 32Vascular Bundle 1, 3, 4, 7Veins 25Ventricles 22Venules 27Vessels 10White NAME 34Xerophytes 51Xylem 1, 4, 10Xylem Vessels 10Xylem Vessels 7Zone of NAME 3 NAME Book s a well witonbiology book hat aime at equipping students with knowledge, attudes and ils that can enable them explo tho environment responseis the second book in the secondary biology seras published AUTHOR adopts the TUPAC system of naming Tho content isin four broad topics namely: Transport in plants animals, Gaseous exchange, Respiration and. Exeretion, andHomeostasis, Topics ae inveduced n'a simple and precise language and relate to the knowodge ganed eater. To enhance easier understanding of conceps, terminologies areefined belore use. Emerging issues such as environmentalCconcervaton and substance abuse ae also dealt with where they areolovant. Neat and procise Musrations have beon wisely Used tofenhance learning. Practical activiies and study questions arentogated within the subtopes at thet relevant teaching pons, Aso, at the end of each topic, there are revision question that assistthe leamers to evaluate themselves, Answers t0 all questions.


Emerging issues such as environmentalCconcervaton and substance abuse ae also dealt with where they areolovant. Neat and procise Musrations have beon wisely Used tofenhance learning. Practical activiies and study questions arentogated within the subtopes at thet relevant teaching pons, Aso, at the end of each topic, there are revision question that assistthe leamers to evaluate themselves, Answers t0 all questions.areprovided in the accompanying Teachers Guide. NAME Guide 9 e a lopcal approach 10 the teaching ofeach of the topics. NAME Book together with the Teachers Guide provide anexcellent interpretation ofthe curent 8.4.4 syllabusCover Photograph: Stunts display the vanspor systom in arab.


1. Studg pictures A, B ond C betow.xxxxxxxxoF rcltlAxxxxxxxxHu0 .0 .20t 72. Ldentifg the ospects of Sociol Studies shown in the pictures obove.3. Shore gour findings in closs. F KeM pexfim sSociol Studies is o eorning oreq thot includes Historg, Geogrophg ond Citizenship. Picture A is Congo River showing on ospect of Geogrophg. Picture B ore BerberVitloges in Morocco, showing on ospect of Historg. Picture C is onidentitg cord showing on qspect of Citizenship.1Coreer ond EntrepreneuriolOpportunities in Sociot StudiesThe studg of Sociol Studies provides us with coreers ond entrepreneurio opportunities indifferent fields. Cqreers ore occupotions undertqken for o significont period of o person's ife ond with opportunities for progress in ife. For exomple,teoching ond engineering orecoreers. Entrepreneurship is the octivitg of setting up o business or toking on finonciolrisks with the hope of moking o profit. L. Studg the foltowing pictures.ldentifg the coreer ond entrepreneuriol opportunities shown in the picturesShore gour findings in ctoss.1. Reod whot Corot ond John ore soqing obout the importqnce of Sociol Studies. Corol2.3.2' Socio Studies enobles us to solve present problemsond in certoin cqses, predict whot might hoppen infuture.'. Sociol Studies inspires potriotism ond notionotismomong citizens.lt enobtes people to oppreciote ondtoke pride in their notionol heritoge.'. Sociol Studies provides the eqrner with on openingto o we l-poging coreer in teoching, ow, business ondodministrotion.lmportonce of Sociol Studies for Personol Developmentond Service to Humonitg. Sociq Studies helps us to understond our noturotlenvironments such os ond, oir, woter ond climqte.. Socio Studies hetps us to oppreciote the eorth osthe homelond of humon kind..


Reod whot Corot ond John ore soqing obout the importqnce of Sociol Studies. Corol2.3.2' Socio Studies enobles us to solve present problemsond in certoin cqses, predict whot might hoppen infuture.'. Sociol Studies inspires potriotism ond notionotismomong citizens.lt enobtes people to oppreciote ondtoke pride in their notionol heritoge.'. Sociol Studies provides the eqrner with on openingto o we l-poging coreer in teoching, ow, business ondodministrotion.lmportonce of Sociol Studies for Personol Developmentond Service to Humonitg. Sociq Studies helps us to understond our noturotlenvironments such os ond, oir, woter ond climqte.. Socio Studies hetps us to oppreciote the eorth osthe homelond of humon kind.. lt helps us to understond our cutture.. Sociolstudies helps us to enhonce teodership skitls. John2. Using digitot devices or other resources, find out wogs in which Sociol Studies isimportont for personol development ond service to humonitg.3. Broinstorm on the importonce of Sociol Studies for personol devetopment ondservice to humonitg.4. Shore gour findings in closs.1. Grode 7 eorners ofTownship Junior Secondorg were osked to reseorch on theimportonce of Sociol Studies for: o personot development.


Broinstorm on the importonce of Sociol Studies for personol devetopment ondservice to humonitg.4. Shore gour findings in closs.1. Grode 7 eorners ofTownship Junior Secondorg were osked to reseorch on theimportonce of Sociol Studies for: o personot development. B service to humonitg. The tobte betow shows some of the points theg were qbte to find out:lmportonce of Sociol Studies forpersonoI developmentlmportonce of Sociol Studies forservice to humonitgaHelps one to understond the reolwortd oround us. Helps us to utitise the ovoilobleresources to serve humonitg. Helps us to become good citizens. Hetps us to oppreciote ond retotewetlwith other people.aHetps us to know the current offoirs.aaaaaaaaaaaComptete the toble bg finding out other wogs in which Socio Studies is importontfor personol development ond service to humonitg.ln which wogs do gou think the studg of Sociot Studies con help gou in: o persono development. B service to humonitg.3Coreer Opportunities Retoted to Sociol Studies in Kengoond GtobotlgUsing print or digitot resources,find out coreers in SociotStudies in Kengo ond globottg. Write down the coreers thot gou find out. Shore gour findings in closs.t 2.3.1.Studg the diogrom below on different coreer options reloted to Sociol Studies.2. Using the diogrom, cotegorise the coreer options into Historg, Geogrophg ondCitizenship. The first one hos been done for gou. GeogrophgHistorgCitizenshipLqnd economicsArchoeologgPubtic qdministrotion2. Discuss the professions gou would be interested in from the ones listed in the tobte.3. Hotd on open forum discussion on coreer choices in Sociot Studies.4.


Using the diogrom, cotegorise the coreer options into Historg, Geogrophg ondCitizenship. The first one hos been done for gou. GeogrophgHistorgCitizenshipLqnd economicsArchoeologgPubtic qdministrotion2. Discuss the professions gou would be interested in from the ones listed in the tobte.3. Hotd on open forum discussion on coreer choices in Sociot Studies.4. Moke summorg points on the sgmposio.4SOCIAL STUDIES-Ff KeM pes xtwSome of the coreers in Sociot Studies inctude working os o museum curotor, lond economist,towger, climototogist, urbon plonner, orchoeotogist, ecotogist, pilots, omong others. D 2- ldentifg the business octivities shown in the pictures o to d .3. Using digitotdevices,print medio or other resources,find out other entrepreneuriolopportunities for Sociql Studies in our societg4. Shore your findings in ctoss. KeS pointsSome of the entrepreneurio opportunities for Sociot Studies in our societg inctudepotterg, bosketrg, ecotourism, horticulture, ogroforestrg ond fishing omong others.5LEntrepreneurio Opportunities for Sociol Studies in theSocietg1. Studg the pictures.tk L. Reod oloud the messoges on the poster. RanchingFishingDairy farmingHorticultureoke o Poster on entrePreneuopportunies reloted totes tn oursocietg.3. Displog the posters ot q strqtegic ptoce in school. A is o cqreful pton or method of deoting with on issue. Is the stoteof being mote or femole in retotion to sociol ond culturol roles. Orefixed generol ideos or imoges thot ossume thot o person behoves in o porticulor wog. Stereotgpes limit ospirotions qnd devetopment of tolents. Theg creote gender differences. These differences ought to be oddressed using oppropriote strotegies.6Activitgpoirs1.


Displog the posters ot q strqtegic ptoce in school. A is o cqreful pton or method of deoting with on issue. Is the stoteof being mote or femole in retotion to sociol ond culturol roles. Orefixed generol ideos or imoges thot ossume thot o person behoves in o porticulor wog. Stereotgpes limit ospirotions qnd devetopment of tolents. Theg creote gender differences. These differences ought to be oddressed using oppropriote strotegies.6Activitgpoirs1. Studg the pictures below.iai!I2. Whot cqn Uou see in the pictures?3. Discuss how gender stereotgpes ore being oddressed in pictures o to d . Givereosons for gour onswers.d Ke P m sWe con oddress gender stereotupes in coreer ond entrepreneuriol opportunitiesretoted to Sociq Studies through the fottowing strotegies:i Committing ond encouroging both moles ond femotes to toke o futl ronge ofcoreers ond business opportunities.ii Ensuring representotion of both genders in eodership.,,,. R Treoting both moles ond femoles equollg bg using texts ond curricutor thot doesnot promote gender bios.,. Ir Devetop poticies, lows ond decision moking processes thot represent both motesond femotes.7 r b ,c till lj; fGrode 7 eorners developed the fottowing rules thot discouroge gender stereotgpesin cqreer choices. Reod them oloud.2.Discuss ond moke rutes for gour grode to discourqge gender stereotgpes. Biologicot Differences Devoid of Stereotgpes in CoreerChoices ond Entrepreneuriol Opportunities in SociotStudiesThere ore biologicol differences between mole ond femqle people. For exomple, moleshove big muscles, hove brooder cheSts ond grow more hoir.


Givereosons for gour onswers.d Ke P m sWe con oddress gender stereotupes in coreer ond entrepreneuriol opportunitiesretoted to Sociq Studies through the fottowing strotegies:i Committing ond encouroging both moles ond femotes to toke o futl ronge ofcoreers ond business opportunities.ii Ensuring representotion of both genders in eodership.,,,. R Treoting both moles ond femoles equollg bg using texts ond curricutor thot doesnot promote gender bios.,. Ir Devetop poticies, lows ond decision moking processes thot represent both motesond femotes.7 r b ,c till lj; fGrode 7 eorners developed the fottowing rules thot discouroge gender stereotgpesin cqreer choices. Reod them oloud.2.Discuss ond moke rutes for gour grode to discourqge gender stereotgpes. Biologicot Differences Devoid of Stereotgpes in CoreerChoices ond Entrepreneuriol Opportunities in SociotStudiesThere ore biologicol differences between mole ond femqle people. For exomple, moleshove big muscles, hove brooder cheSts ond grow more hoir. Femoles on the other hondhove ess developed muscles ond less hoir growth on their bodies. Using print or digitol resources, find out the biotogico difference between mqle ondfemole ond comptete the toble below. Femotes.,. We wit respect and listen to both bogs and girts in their coreer choices'.,. We shott protect the dignitg oJ evergone when theg choose o careerond entrepreneurlo opportunitg oJ their cholce',,, Weshat encour age each.other to toke up atttgpes oJ careers regardtessof one's gender.". We shatl not shout ot, insutt or shut down ongone when ctassmatesexpress interest in certain careers or buslnesses oJ their choice. We shatt shore new ideas thot dlscouroge gender stereotupes n careerond business cholces. Our Grode Seven Rutes81.:Moles1. Look qt the picture to gour right.2.


Femoles on the other hondhove ess developed muscles ond less hoir growth on their bodies. Using print or digitol resources, find out the biotogico difference between mqle ondfemole ond comptete the toble below. Femotes.,. We wit respect and listen to both bogs and girts in their coreer choices'.,. We shott protect the dignitg oJ evergone when theg choose o careerond entrepreneurlo opportunitg oJ their cholce',,, Weshat encour age each.other to toke up atttgpes oJ careers regardtessof one's gender.". We shatl not shout ot, insutt or shut down ongone when ctassmatesexpress interest in certain careers or buslnesses oJ their choice. We shatt shore new ideas thot dlscouroge gender stereotupes n careerond business cholces. Our Grode Seven Rutes81.:Moles1. Look qt the picture to gour right.2. Use the picture to exptoin whg gouthink gender stereotgpes ctre notgood for our societg.1. Reod whqt Engineer Jone qnd Chef John ore soging obout coreer choices andentrepreneuriol opportunities in Sociot Studies. Mg nome is Engineer Jone. I om qpetroleum engineer. I design onddevelop methods of extrocting oilond gos. Being s womon does notprevent development of mU cqreer osqn engineer.l love mg job. Mg nome is Chef John. I om q chef. I prepore o tgpes of foods, be itloco or exotic. I otso troin peoptein cotering services.


Being s womon does notprevent development of mU cqreer osqn engineer.l love mg job. Mg nome is Chef John. I om q chef. I prepore o tgpes of foods, be itloco or exotic. I otso troin peoptein cotering services. Being o mondoes not offect mU coreer os o chef. I love mg job.2.Discuss other wogs of recognising biologicol differences devoid of stereotgpes incqreer choices cnd entrepreneuriol opportunities in Sociol Studies. Shore gour ideos in ctoss.3.t 9.j rgl ' Keg pointsBiotogicol differences should never be o hindronce to one's coreer choice ond entrepreneuriol'opportunitie S;Aoth mcte qnd ffiglqiltpitd be given equolopportunities to pursue their:dresms. Demonstroting Respect for One's Gender ldentitg in Pursuitof Sociot Studies Coreers ond Entrepreneuriot OpportunitiesGender identitg is the personolsense of one's own gender. People mog express themselvesdepending on the gender identitg ossigned to them. Gender identitg is different from sex. For most peopte, gender identitg otigns with the gender on individuol wos ossigned ot birch.1. Reqd the messoges on the posters thot the teorners ore hotdingMy brothercolledPeter. He is o chief. Pefer loves his joband is respected byeveryone in thecommunity. Besides his job, heis also a husbandand a fother.2. Creote posters on respect for one's gender identitg in pursuitSociol Studiescoreers ond entrepreneuriol opportunities.3.


Reqd the messoges on the posters thot the teorners ore hotdingMy brothercolledPeter. He is o chief. Pefer loves his joband is respected byeveryone in thecommunity. Besides his job, heis also a husbandand a fother.2. Creote posters on respect for one's gender identitg in pursuitSociol Studiescoreers ond entrepreneuriol opportunities.3. Disptog the posters in closs ond oppreciqte eoch other's work. Keg BointsWe shoutd never discriminote ogoinst ongone becouse of gender. We con demonstroteresPect for one's gender identitg in pursuit of Sociol Studies coreers ond entrepreneuriolopportunities through the foltowing wous: o treoting eoch other with respect regordtess of gender ond choice of coreers orentrepreneuriol opportu n ities; b complementing the ochievements of others in their cqreers ond entrepreneurio opportunities; c being gender responsive bg toking octions to correct gender bios ond discriminqtion. D ensuring thot no one is mistreoted, morginolised or discriminoted ogoinst becouseof their gender.10.as,rf ScIA',,, it, :.i: ,,,,; refers to the strength of relotionships ond the sense of sotidoritgqmong members of o communitg lt is the extent of connectedness ond solidoritg omonggroups in societg. Sociol Studies ptogs o verg importont rote in promotion of sociotcohesion in our societg.1. Studg the fotlowing diogrom showing wogs in which Sociot Studies promotessociol cohesion. Role of Sociol Studies in Promoting Sociol CohesionPreservationof social andRespect forhumanrightsResolvingconflictspeacefully2. Discuss the messoges on the diogrom on how SociolStudies promotes sociolcohesion.3.


Sociol Studies ptogs o verg importont rote in promotion of sociotcohesion in our societg.1. Studg the fotlowing diogrom showing wogs in which Sociot Studies promotessociol cohesion. Role of Sociol Studies in Promoting Sociol CohesionPreservationof social andRespect forhumanrightsResolvingconflictspeacefully2. Discuss the messoges on the diogrom on how SociolStudies promotes sociolcohesion.3. Moke o closs presentotion. A KeU poin sSociolStudies promotes sociolcohesion in the foltowing woUS; o it enobles eorners to ocquire positive interpersonqt retotions thot enoble them toretote we with eqch other; b it enobles the leorners to develop o sense of belonging with communities, cutturo groups ond neighbours which promote unitg ond sotidority; . It enobles leorners to respect ond oppreciote humqn rights thus enhoncing socio cohesion.11Preservationof humanrightsof theEnhancespatriotismculturalidenti r. :, I : I.r1. Discuss with gour porents or guordions coreers ond entrepreneuriot qctivitiesthot people in gour communitg engoge in.2. List the coreers ond entrepreneuriol octivities in gour exercise book.3. Shore gour work with the rest of the closs. Sociol Studies mokes us owcre ond hetps to creote concern for the welfqre of others. We sre olso oble to protect ond conserve our environment thus promoting potriotism. Using the dictionorg, find out the meoning of the fotlowing words ond phroses: o Coreer b Socio cohesion c EntrepreneurioI opportunitg d Gender stereotgpes " Personoldevetopmentew wogn12s1. Exptoin the meoning of Sociol Studies.2. Ln which wogs does Sociol Studies help in: o personol devetopment, b service to humonitg3. Ldentify coreer opportunities retoted to Sociol Studies in Kengo ond globottg.4.


Exptoin the meoning of Sociol Studies.2.ln which wogs does Sociol Studies help in: o personol devetopment, b service to humonitg3.ldentify coreer opportunities retoted to Sociol Studies in Kengo ond globottg.4.Discuss the entrepreneuriol opportunities qvoiloble for Sociol Studies leonners inKengo.5.Hightight strotegies thot con be used to oddress gender stereotgpes ossocioredwith coreer choices ond entrepreneurio opportunities in Socio Studies.6.Discuss how one con recognise biologicql differences devoid of stereotgpes inchoosing coreers ond entrepreneuriol opportunities in Sociol Studies.7.Exploin wogs in which one con show respect for on individuot's gender identitg inpursuit of Sociol Studies coreers ond entrepreneuriol opportunities.8.ln which wogs does the studg of Sociol Studies promote sociol cohesion in thesocietg?9.How do coreers ond entrepreneuriol opportunities from Sociol Studies serve setfond humonitg?10.How con we demonstrote respect for one's gender identitg in pursuit of coreersond entrepreneuriol opportunities in Sociol Studiesl11.How con we qddress gender stereotgpes qssocioted with coreer choices ondentrepreneuriol opportunities in Socio Studies?


RATIONALIZED PRE-TECHNICAL STUDIES GRADE 7 NOTES Strand 1: FOUNDATION OF PRE-TECHNICAL STUDIES. 1.1-Introduction to Pre-technical studies Pre-technical studies is a series of learning areas written to provide practical experiences that support the acquisition of skills in technical areas derived from computer science and business studies. Components of Pre-technical studies. Pre-technical studies is a technical learning area comprising of: Pre-technical studies a learning area that involves acquiring practical skills and experience in technical area. Computer science the study of computers and how computer technology can be used to solve problems. Business study-involves study of activities that involves production, distribution and consumption of goods and services aimed at making profits. The role of Pre-technical studies in day today life. It gives learners the skills they need to think critically and solve problems as well as preparing them for a technical digital future. Facilitates development of appropriate skills and knowledge gained from the learning areas such as computer science and business studies. Offers a wide range of careers in Pre-technical area such as in safety and material handling, in computer science such as programmers, software engineering and in business studies such as accountant, traders, manager, bankers and shopkeeper. Pre-technical studies promotes independence and self-learning through various skills enhancing chances of creating employment opportunities and self-employment in individual. It equips learners with skills to use when observing personal safety and safety in working environment. What is safety? Safety is a situation where one avoids causing harm, discomfort or sickness to self and to others when carrying out the daily activities. Examples of safety measures include: Wearing face mask to prevent spreading of airborne diseases or breathing in dirty air. Buckling a safety belt while in a vehicle to avoid falling off the seat in case of emergency brakes. Wearing hand gloves when working to avoid injury and dirt to the hands when working. Wearing gum boots to protect the feet from injury when working in areas with mud or sharp objects. Wearing an overall to guard against soiling clothes. Potential safety threats in a work environment. Potential safety threats in work environment can either be physical or online. Physical threats at workplaces. Physical safety threats include: Sharp edged tools and objects that can easily cut or poke someone.


Potential safety threats in a work environment. Potential safety threats in work environment can either be physical or online. Physical threats at workplaces. Physical safety threats include: Sharp edged tools and objects that can easily cut or poke someone. Disarranged rooms where one can easily tumble and fall. Naked electric wires that can easily cause electric shock. Poorly lit rooms where one can easily know oneself against objects. Poorly stored items on the shelves where they can easily fall off and hit someone. Working without protective gear where one can easily be hurt or injured. Rooms with wet slippery floors where one can easily slip and fall. Online threats at a workplace. Every online user should ensure they stay safe online by protecting themselves and others from online threats. Examples of online threats at work place include: Malware virus attack. Hacking. Data theft. Cyberbullying. Friend requests from unknown people. Phishing attacks. Ransomware-attempts to encrypt data and calling for ransom to release it or unlock code 1.2 - Safety in the work environment. Online safety rules and regulations in the work environment. Online safety is keeping safe from possible threats that a computer user may experience while engaging in activities through the internet. It includes: Protecting and managing personal information. Avoiding harmful or illegal content. To avoid online fraud, always buy online items from secure and trusted sites. Also, watch out for scams that come in form of messages and emails. Do not accept friend requests from strangers. Some strangers are hackers who might access your personal information and even take over your accounts. Phishing is an online fraud system used to steal private data such as login usernames and passwords. Use strong passwords that cannot be crashed easily in case your password is compromised. Consider changing it right away. Always back up your data and keep your computer security updated. Physical threats to digital devices. Physical threats to a computer include: Fluids such as water, milk and juice that can damage different parts of the devices. Theft.


Physical threats to digital devices. Physical threats to a computer include: Fluids such as water, milk and juice that can damage different parts of the devices. Theft. Damage caused by natural disasters, fire and impact of falls. Corrosion caused by excessive humidity and dampness. Exposed cables in the computer room. Hardware failure Ways of mitigating reducing physical threats to digital devices. To prevent physical threats, the following should be done. Do not carry water into the computer room or near the computer. Do not use old and loose power extension cables in a computer room. They produce sparks that can cause fire in the computer room. Replace loose power extension cables because they may lead to unstable power supply. Use voltage controllers to curb unstable power supply in the computer room. Equip computer rooms with fire extinguishers that do not use water, the computer room can be fit with automatic fire detectors that will detect fire or smoke and alert the personnel in charge for quick action. Tuck computer cables in trunks or carefully lay them down under the desks in order to prevent falls in the computer room. Place computers on strong furniture to prevent them from falling. Restrict access to computer rooms. Secure the computer room with strong windows and doors to control theft of computers. To increase the security level, you can install CCTV cameras and also employ security personnel. Use computer cable locks to control theft in the computer room. Use dehumidifiers to control excess humidity and dampness. Ensure there is enough ventilation or free circulation of air in the computer room. Fit window curtains and air conditioners in the computer room to control and filter dust particles from entering the room. Cover computers with dust covers when they are not in use. Ideas and practices on how to personal and sensitive data from the public when online: To keep personal and sensitive data from the public when online, the following can be done: Protect and manage personal information. Do not accept friend requests from strangers. Avoiding harmful or illegal content. Buy online items from secure and trusted sites. Installation of antivirus software. Backing up data. Use of strong passwords.


Installation of antivirus software. Backing up data. Use of strong passwords. Log out from your online accounts after using public internet to browse. Do not communicate with strangers online. Safety Rules and Regulations at Work. Safety rules and regulations exist in all workplaces. They are principles that govern the actions and procedures to keep the works property and the environment safe. Some of the general safety rules and regulations include: To ensure that you know how to safely perform the task. To ensure you know the hazards of the task and how to protect yourself. To wear the required personal protective equipment necessary for the task. To always work clear of suspended loads. To always keep your mind and eyes on the task at hand. To obey all warning signs and barricades. To inspect all tools and equipment to ensure they are not defective before using them. Do not perform a task under unsafe conditions and report any unsafe tools, equipment or hazardous conditions. All chemicals containers should be well labelled and covered. Maintain good housekeeping at workplace all the time. A computer is an electronic device that process or converts data into information. A computer receives, stores, organizes and processes data into information. The word computer came from Latin word computare which means to calculate. A computer uses programs that are sets of instructions which a computer follows to perform tasks. What is Data? Data refers to raw facts such as numbers, symbols, images and letters that are not processed and have no meaning to the user. Data is plural while in singular it is datum. Data is not meaningful to the user until it is processed. Examples of Data include: Texts. Images. Sound. Videos. What is information? Information refers to processed data that is meaningful to the user. Information is meaningful to the user. List the examples of computers used today. The following are examples of computers: Notebook. Desktop. Laptop. Tablets.


Examples of analogue computers include: speedometer and mercury thermometer. Digital computers. They included modern computers like laptops, tablets, desktops and smartphones. They are designed to perform calculations and logic operations at high speed. They accept the raw data as input and process it with programs stored in its memory to produce the desired output. Hybrid computers. They combined best features of the analogue computers such as speed and those of the digital computers such as internal memory. They are used in specialized applications where both analogue signals and convert them into digital form before processing. Examples of hybrid computers are fuel pump and the analogue blood pressureClassifying Computers According to Purpose 1. General purpose computers They are most common computers that can perform most common tasks such as word processing, calculations, draw, play music and send electronic mails. General purpose computers are mostly used in schools, hotels, hospitals and at homes. 2. Special purpose computers. They are computers designed to carry out specific tasks only. They are mainly used in manufacturing industries, traffic control systems, weather forecasting, robotic systems, satellites and ATM machines. Classifying Computers According to Purpose 1. Supercomputer. It is the biggest. It is the most expensive. It is the fastest and most powerful computer for big data processing. It is able to process many instructions in a second. It is mainly used in application requiring complex mathematical calculations such as in- flight simulation in aerospace, in weather forecasting and in satellite launching. 2. Mainframe computers. They are the largest and most expensive after super computers. They have a higher processing power which can handle thousands of connected peripheral devices or users at the same time. They store large amount of data, instructions and information. Most government institutions use mainframe computers to store data, calculate interest rates and customer balances. 3. Mini computers. They are smaller, less powerful and less expensive than main frame and super computers. They are more expensive and powerful than personal computers. They provide a centralized location for data, information and programs. They are also used to perform calculations and process business transactions. 4. Microcomputers. They are the least powerful, smallest and cheapest computers. They are also called personal computers.


Microcomputers. They are the least powerful, smallest and cheapest computers. They are also called personal computers. They are called microcomputers because their processing device is called a microprocessor. They are designed to be used by one person at a time. They are used in offices, schools, businesses, media houses or to keep records, prepare lesson plans and to browse. 2.1Fundamentals of communication. STRAND 2- COMMUNICATION Meaning of Communication. Communication is the process of sharing information through a channel from the sender to the receiver. Importance of communication in the work environment. Good communication ensures making decision is easier. Communication helps to build positive relationships, teamwork and trust at workplaces. Good communication helps to achieve greater goals. Communication enables managers shares goals with shareholders both inside and outside the organisation. It gives managers permission to stimulate behaviour changes in employees and suppliers and to inspire loyalty from the employees and customers. It allows managers to convince employees and unions to abandon counterproductive practices, managers persuade leaders to provide financing and it permits managers to calm angry customers and impress new ones. Preventing misunderstanding and conflicts. Improving customer services. Meeting goals and earning success. Promoting creativity and innovation. Advancing individual career prospects. ICT Tools in Communication. Emails-used to exchange information over the internet to other individuals. Mobile phones- allows calling and messaging in communication. Computers -computer provide various communication channels such as emailing, video calling etc. Videos and web conferencing- Video conferencing has a focus on face-to-face communication. Web conferencing has a focus on interaction and collaboration such as document sharing. Social networking - use of dedicated websites and applications to interact with other users. Online collaboration - using the internet and online tools to collaborate. Softwares like word processor are used to design letters and memos that are used to pass information in business. Social media is used to give immediate response to customer needs. Challenges of the internet. Ways of overcoming Internet challenges. Benefits and challenges of the internet. Internet enables communication worldwide through emails, chat services and video calls. Enable E-learning through video teachings and research has enabled learners and researchers to get information.


Benefits and challenges of the internet. Internet enables communication worldwide through emails, chat services and video calls. Enable E-learning through video teachings and research has enabled learners and researchers to get information. The internet is a source of entertainment where people listen to music, watch videos, sports and even play online games through the internet. Business flourish by using internet for online shopping and marketing of their products. Uploading, downloading and sharing data has been made easier with the internet. The banking sector has embraced online banking. Sending and receiving money is now faster and more convenient because of the internet. Some job seekers use the internet to find and apply for jobs online. Causes antisocial behaviour due to too much use or addiction. Causes laziness. Hacking and computer viruses are online threats associated with the internet. Some internet activities such as online gambling and posting of illicit photos and videos are indicators of moral decay. Personal data can be compromised through the internet and used to commit crimes such as fraud and cyber bullying. Sometimes the internet contains misleading and false information. Using updated software and antivirus programs to prevent data attacks by viruses. Having strong and different passwords that cannot be cracked also protect data from being compromised. Practising self-control through limiting the time spent on the internet and shutting down devices to avoid internet distractions. Always watching out for scam messages and emails in order to prevent online fraud. Parents, teachers and guardians monitoring all online activities done by their children and advising them on how to use the internet wisely. Not sharing personal information. Benefits of the Internet. Importance of Drawing as a means of Communication. Drawing are types of diagrams used for communication to show the shape and structure of a given idea or product. Technical fields use drawings to draw designs of different items before they are made. Types of drawing used in technical fields. Drawing involves making marks on a surface to create images of forms and shapes. Artistic drawing these are drawings that allows the communication of emotions, ideas or feelings.


Types of drawing used in technical fields. Drawing involves making marks on a surface to create images of forms and shapes. Artistic drawing these are drawings that allows the communication of emotions, ideas or feelings. Examples of artistic drawing include: Illustrations -drawings for people to visualize and understand the picture by picture rather than through text. Portraits-drawn pictures in which the face is dominant. Caricature drawing or painting in which features have been distorted and exaggerated in order to mock or satirize the subject e.g., cartoon Graffiti-drawings made in public spaces such as public walls or buildings using spray paints. Illustration. Portrait. 2.2 - Introduction to drawing. Differences between Artistic and Technical Drawings. Caricature. Graffiti. Technical drawings these are drawings made to scale to communicate specific idea on how a physical object function or is constructed. They are made to give a precise and detailed view of an object. They give information about how an object function or how it is constructed. Examples of technical drawings: Architectural drawings. Structural drawing. Mechanical systems drawings. Electrical drawings, Feature Technical drawings Artistic drawing 1 Purpose A technical drawing is used to provide accurate measurement of an object to scale. An artistic drawing is used to express one s ideas, to decorate or to give pleasing appearance to a surface. 2 Presentation The technical drawings are presented on a convenient. The artistic drawings are done on any material and in all sizes. 3 Dimensioning and precision. Technical drawing MUST be precise and accurate in dimension. The artistic drawing need not and do not obey the rules of dimensions, shape or proportion. 4 Emotions, feelings and sentiments The technical drawings do not take care of feelings or sentiments of a person. They are factual, functional, productive and result-oriented. The artistic drawings involve expression of feelings and sentiments. 5 Interpretation The technical drawings must be interpreted in the same way all over the globe regardless of the geographical boundaries, religions or nations The interpretation of the drawing is strictly left to the individual or the onlooker. Types of Lines used in drawing and their application.


The artistic drawings involve expression of feelings and sentiments. 5 Interpretation The technical drawings must be interpreted in the same way all over the globe regardless of the geographical boundaries, religions or nations The interpretation of the drawing is strictly left to the individual or the onlooker. Types of Lines used in drawing and their application. Drawing lines and shapes using drawing instruments Name of the line How the line is used in technical drawing Construction line A faint line used for sketching and drawing the initial details of a drawing Centre line used to show hole centres and centre positions of rounded features Hidden line how edges, surfaces and corners which cannot be seen. Phantom line long-short-short-long lines most often used to show the travel or movement of an object or a part in alternate positions Break line used to show where an object is broken to save drawing space or reveal interior features. Drawing line define the edges of a form Dimension line a thin, solid line that shows the extent and direction of a dimension Leader line A line that connects a data label and its associated data point Cutting line Type of line HorizontalVertical Diagonal Parallel Perdendicular Thick and thin CurvedZigzag Wavy Spiral Dotted ......................................................................................... Basic symbols and abbreviations used in drawing. Symbol Meaning 1 Diameter 2 Perpendicularity. 3 Centerline. 4 Radius 5 Square6 Basic abbreviations used in drawing. 1. DRG -means drawing. 2. A F means across flat. 3. A C means across corners. 4. I D means inner diameter. 5. O D means outer diameter. STRAND 3-MATERIALS FOR PRODUCTION. Meaning and types of Economic Resources. Resources are all the materials available in our environment which are accessible, economically feasible and culturally sustainable and help us to satisfy our needs and wants. Economic resources are the resources used for carrying out economic activities. The main classes of economic resources are: Land. Labour. Capital. Entrepreneurship. Characteristics of Economic Resources used for production of goods and services. Uneven distribution-economic resources are not found in all places. Scarcity- these resources are not enough to satisfy all human wants. Economic resources have alternative uses. Usefulness-Economic resources have utility and they are useful. Mobility-They can be transported from one place to another.


Economic resources have alternative uses. Usefulness-Economic resources have utility and they are useful. Mobility-They can be transported from one place to another. Combinability-Economic resources can be combined to produce different goods and services. Monetary Value-Economic resources are measured in terms of money. Therefore, they have monetary value. They can change ownership. Classification and Types of economic resources in Kenya. There are example types of economic resources in Kenya. They include mountains, minerals, machineries, land, information, sunshine, rainwater, lakes, rivers, oceans, etc. There are three types of economic resources namely; Human-made resources Natural resources. Human resources. 1. Human-made economic resources. They are resources that are created by human beings through various productive activities. They include: Tarmac roads. Machineries. Dam Watch etc 3.1 Economic Resources. 2. Natural economic resources. -. They are resources that exists in nature. -. They are found in natural environment. -. They include: Mountains. Rivers. Lakes. Wind. Sun. Natural forests etc. 3. Human economic resources. -. They are also referred to as labour or people who provide human services. -. For example; Teachers. Drivers. Painters. Nurses. Differences between metallic and non-metallic materials as economic resources. Distinction between metallic and Non-metallic materials. Metallic materials Non-metallic materials Some rust They do not rust. They have definite shape. Liquids and air do not have a definite shape but solids have a definite shape. They produce a sharp loud sound on knocking. Sonorous . They produce a dull sound on knocking. They are more reflective. They are less reflective, except glasses. They are generally smooth. They are generally rougher when not polished. They heat up faster when put under the sun. They heat up slowly. They are hotter than non-metals when under the sun. They are cooler than metals when put under a shade. They cool faster when put under a shade. They cool slowly when put under a shade. They are colder than non-metals under cold weather. They are warmer than metals under cold weather.


They cool slowly when put under a shade. They are colder than non-metals under cold weather. They are warmer than metals under cold weather. They are not easy to break. They are easier to break than metals. 3.2 Metallic Materials. Sustainable ways of using economic resources. Reusing and saving resources. Avoid wastage and use of non-environmental pollutants. Safeguarding natural resources air, water, land etc.,. For the benefit of present and future generations through careful planning or management as appropriate. Adopting efficient technology. Investing in renewable energy sources. Reducing usage or consumption of economic resources through reusing and recycling. The capacity of the earth to produce important renewable resources must be maintained and whenever practicable, restored or improved. The non-renewable resources of the earth must be employed in such a way as to guard against the danger of their future exhaustion and to ensure that benefits from such employment are shared by all mankind. A metal is a solid material which is typically hard, shiny, malleable, fusible and ductile. Metallic materials are materials that have properties of metal. They have good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are mostly identified by the items made from them. The types of materials include: Metals include: Copper. Iron. Aluminium. Steel. Silver among others. A. Shiny metals such as copper, silver and gold for decorative arts, jewellery and coins. B. Iron and steel for structures like buildings, furniture and vehicle parts. Physical properties of Ferrous and non-ferrous metals. C. Copper for electric wires. D. Aluminium for cams, bottle tops and caps, household appliances and utensils, airplanes. E. Bronze for church and school bells. Ferrous metals are metals that consists mostly of iron and small amount of other elements. Some of the physical properties of ferrous metals include: Magnetism-ferrous metals are highly attracted to a magnet. Heat conductivity- ferrous metals are better conductors of heat than non-ferrous materials. 3.3 Non-metallic materials. Categorization of Non-metallic materials as either synthetic or natural. Appearance-ferrous metals have a silvery colour.


3.3 Non-metallic materials. Categorization of Non-metallic materials as either synthetic or natural. Appearance-ferrous metals have a silvery colour. Electricity conductivity ferrous metals are poor conductors of electricity than nonferrous metals. Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not have any iron in them at all. Some of the physical properties of non-ferrous materials include: Magnetism-non-ferrous metals are not magnetic. Heat conductivity- non-ferrous metals are poor conductors of heat than ferrous metals. Appearance- non-ferrous metals like gold have a more colourful appearance than ferrous metals. Electricity conductivity- non-ferrous metals like copper are better conductors of electricity than ferrous metals. Non-metallic materials found in the environment. Non-metals include: Wood. Stones. Textile. Soil. Glass. Leather. Plastic. Rubber. Water. Air among others Non-metallic materials can be categorized as synthetic or natural. Synthetic materials include plastics, manufactured glass, manufactured fibres, polythene, ink, paints and drugs among others. Natural non-metallic materials include plant and animal products such as wood, wool, bones and skin among others. They also include inorganic material such as stones, minerals, sand, clay and ballast among others. Physical state Non-metals can exist in all the three physical stats; solid, liquid and gaseous. Hardness Non-metals are generally soft. Some of the solid non-metals are quite soft. They can easily be cut with a knife. Brittleness Non-metallic materials are brittle because they break down into pieces on hammering. Decomposition Natural non-metallic decompose rot after sometime. Synthetic non- metallic materials do not decompose easily. Combustibility Non-metallic materials generally burn in fire, except earth and mineral products. Heat conduction Non-metallic materials do not conduct heat. This means that non-metals do not allow heat to pass through them. Shininess Natural non-metallic materials are dull. Synthetic non-metals appear a little shiny. Physical properties of non-metallic materials.


Shininess Natural non-metallic materials are dull. Synthetic non-metals appear a little shiny. Physical properties of non-metallic materials. STRAND 4- TOOLS PRODUCTION. A measuring tool is a device used to measure a physical quantity such as length, time, weight, angle, volume and temperature. A marking tool is a device used to indicate a point on a surface to obtain accurate size and shape. Common measuring and marking tools are: Steel rule-also called steel ruler. A flat metallic tool with a calibrated surface. Made from stainless steel. Can either be flexible or rigid with different thickness. Uses: Measure length of an object or distance between 2 points. To draw straight lines. To guide cuts. Fields in which ruler is used: geometry, welding and fabrication, technical drawing, architecture and construction. Tape measure-also called measuring tape. A flexible tool marked millimetres, centimetres and inches. There are different types of measuring tapes. Tape measure is made up of materials such as fiberglass, cloth, plastic, metal ribbon or strip. Uses: used to measure length of an item and distances between points. Measures a round curved object because it is flexible in nature. Fields it is used: Masonry, plumbing, electrical installation, surveying, crafts and woodworking. 4.1 - Measuring Marking Tools. Measuring tools. Square it is a measuring device that consists of two straight edges set at right angles to each other. There are different types of squares. Uses: used to measure and ensure that two perpendicular surfaces are at a right angle. Used in different fields to ensure that joints and corners of objects are truly square. Fields in which square is used: Woodwork, masonry, mechanical engineering and plumbing among others. Try square Mason s square Calipers - it is a measuring tool that consists of two adjustable jaws. There are different types of calipers. Uses: Use to measure thickness and ouside dinensions of an object like tennis ball or bottle. Used to measure the internal dimensions of hollow objects like a rectangular tube or cylindrical pipe. Fields in which callipers are used:science, woodwork, metalwork and other mechanical trades.


Uses: Use to measure thickness and ouside dinensions of an object like tennis ball or bottle. Used to measure the internal dimensions of hollow objects like a rectangular tube or cylindrical pipe. Fields in which callipers are used:science, woodwork, metalwork and other mechanical trades. Inside callipers Outside callipers Vernier calipers. Micrometer screw gauge - also called a micrometer. It is a measuring instrument with a G-frame with an adjustable spindle. Uses: Used to measure the diameter of wires and thickness of small sheets such as glass or plastic. Fields in which callipers are used:metal working and other mechanical fields. Spirit level-it is a tool consisting of a sealed glass tube partially filled with a liquid, containing an air bubble. Used to determine if a surface is vertical or horizontal. Uses: Used to indicate how horizontal or vertical a surface or an item is. Fields in which callipers are used:masonry, carpentry, surveyor, plumber, metalworker and other interior designers. Thermometer- it is an instrument that is used to measure the temperature. It can be digital or analogue. Uses: Used to measure the tempereture of solids like food, liquids like water or gas like air. Fields in which callipers are used: widely used in industry and technology, in medicine and in research. Plumb bob also called plummet. It is a weight with a pointed tip on the bottom, which can be suspended from a string to give a vertical line. Uses: Used in construction industry to ensure that a vertical installation such as a wall is perfectly vertical. Examples of real-life situations of uses of plumb bob include: -ensuring a wall is vertical when constructing. -ensuring fencing posts are vertical during fencing. Fixing a foor fram. Installation of ceiling lights or pot lights and hanging of pictures. Installing wallpapers. Fields in which callipers are used:construction, masonry. Measuring cylinder-a calibrated glass or plastic cylinder. Uses: Used to measure volume of liquids and to determine volume of a solid by measuring displacement of a liquid. Fields in which callipers are used: laboratories, veterinaery and human services to measure drugs, chemicals and medicines.


Measuring cylinder-a calibrated glass or plastic cylinder. Uses: Used to measure volume of liquids and to determine volume of a solid by measuring displacement of a liquid. Fields in which callipers are used: laboratories, veterinaery and human services to measure drugs, chemicals and medicines. Stop watch- a stop watch is a time measuring device with buttons, which you press at the beginning and at the end of a timed event. Uses: Used to measure the time interval of an event. Fields in which callipers are used: areas where accurate timing of events is required. Such as sports activities and laboratory experiments. Voltmeter-it is also known as a voltage meter. It is an electric measuring instrument with a letter V marked on the face. Uses: Used to measure voltage across the two terminals in an electrical circuit. Used by electrical technician s to chack input and output voltage of electrical equipment such as moter, batterries, medical equipment, electrical panel boards, plastic machinery and electrical devices. Ammeter-it is also known as ampere meter. It an electric measuring instrument with letter A marked on the face. Uses: Used to measure the amount of electric current in a closed circuit. Fields in which callipers are used:used by electrical technicians. Ohmmeter-it is an electric measuring instrument with a symbol marked on the face. Marking tools. Multimeter- it is a digital electric measuring instrument that can measure multiple electrical properties. Weighing balance- it is also called a weighing scale. It is an instrument that is used to determine the weight or mass of an object. They are of different types. Uses: Used to determine the weight of test materials and sampling amounts that require high degree of accuracy. Fields in which callipers are used:laboratories in pharmaceuticals, educational, food and beverage, chemical and industrial. Electronic weighing balance Spring balance Beam balance Pencil a thin piece of woof with a rod of black or coloured lead through the middle. Uses: Mark lines and centres for cutting or joining. Fields in which callipers are used:carpentry, tailoring, geometry etc. A pencil Scriber it is a metallic hand tool with hard sharpened ends. Uses: Mark line on metal or wood.


Fields in which callipers are used:carpentry, tailoring, geometry etc. A pencil Scriber it is a metallic hand tool with hard sharpened ends. Uses: Mark line on metal or wood. Can be used together with a straight edge or square. Fields in which callipers are used: woodwork, tiling, clay works and metalwork. Scriber Marking gauge it is also called scratch. It is a tool with a small pin. Uses: Used to mark aline parallel to the edge of the piece of work. Fields in which callipers are used:used in woodwork joinery and sheet metal operations to mark out lines for cutting or other operations. A marking gauge. Tailor s chalk it is a thin flat piece of hard chalk used by tailors and dressmakers. Uses: Used to mark guides on a fabric to indicate where it needs to be cut, folded or stitched. Field where it is used: tailoring Sliding bevel it is also called a bevel square. It is a tool with adjustable blade angles. Uses: Used to set an angle to be marked ob itens like timber, metal, tile or brick. Fields in which callipers are used: woodwork, tiling, clay works and metalworks. Punch a punch is a shard sharp ended tool. There are two types of punches. Centre punch and dot punch. Uses: Can be used to make indent in materials such as metal, leather, rubber, wood or plastics. It is used to showa point where a hole is to be drilled. Fields in which callipers are used: metalwork, woodwork and leatherwork. Centre punch Dot punch Marking knife it is also called a striking knife. It is a tool that is either single beveled or double beveled. Uses:Dual purpose measuring and marking tools. Used to make markings on workpieces. Used to cut a visible line that can then be used to guide a hand saw, chisel or plane when making woodworking joints and others operations, Fields in which callipers are used: woordworking. Single bevel Double bevel. Spacing wheel it is a leather marking tool with evenly spaced spikes pn a wheel.


Used to cut a visible line that can then be used to guide a hand saw, chisel or plane when making woodworking joints and others operations, Fields in which callipers are used: woordworking. Single bevel Double bevel. Spacing wheel it is a leather marking tool with evenly spaced spikes pn a wheel. Uses: Used in the leather industry to mark a line a long which stitching can be done, It is also used to mark points where holes can be punched. Fields in which callipers are used: leather work spacing wheel Odd-leg caliper -it is an instrument that consists of two curved, hinged legs. Uses: To measure and transfer thickness and distance to a workplace. Draw a line at a set distance from the edge of an object. Field where it is used: Woodwork, tiling, clay work and metal work. Divider -a divider is a measuring instrument of two straight adjustable legs hinged together and ending in sharp points. Uses: Used to mark off equal distances on a surface. Divide lines into equal parts. Mark arcs and circles on a surface. Fields area used: Surveying. Technical drawing. Engineering. Construction Trammel an instrument for drawing large arcs or circles on a surface. It consists of a beam with two sliding parts. Uses: Used to transfer measurements. To mark arcs. Lay out circles that are too big for normal compass or dividers. Fields area where It is used: Construction. Care for measuring and Marking tools. Caring for measuring and marking tools is the process of keeping them in good working condition even when they are not being used. Some of the ways of caring for measuring and marking tools include the following: - Clean the measuring and marking tools after every use. -. Lubricate instruments properly to avoid corrosion and wearing out of the moving parts. -. Ensure proper storage of the measuring and marking tools after use. The store should be cool and dry, well organised without staking tools directly on each other. -. Ensure proper handling of measuring and marking tools to avoid rough and sudden shocks that could damage the tools or lead to mis-calibration. -. Ensure measuring tools are only services by qualified and certified professionals.


The store should be cool and dry, well organised without staking tools directly on each other. -. Ensure proper handling of measuring and marking tools to avoid rough and sudden shocks that could damage the tools or lead to mis-calibration. -. Ensure measuring tools are only services by qualified and certified professionals. -. Use the measuring and marking tools for their right purposes only. What is the importance of measuring and marking tools in the work environment? They allow for the accurate determination of lengths, widths, diameters and other dimensions. By accurately and measuring and checking dimensions, workers can ensure that the items they make meet the required standard and specifications. This leads to improved quality and safety of the items produced. Measuring and marking tools enable workers to produce similar items with uniform size and capacity across the world. For example, vehicle parts, building components etc. Use of measuring and marking tools ensures safety in many practices e.g., in building construction where accurate measurements and marking of the components helps to ensure stability and loading capacity. Measuring and marking tools are useful in the designing and planning of different items. Architects, engineers and interior designers use these tools to measure spaces, create accurate drawings and mark locations for different items and ensuring they fit well. 4.2 Production of Goods Services. STRAND 4- TOOLS PRODUCTION Meaning of Production in the Community. -. Production is the creation of goods or provision of services to satisfy human needs and wants. -. It involves extraction, manufacturing, processing, construction, trade and service provision. Importance of Production. Goods and services are made available for members of the community through production. Production provides employment for people in the community. Workers who engage in production gain skills. The standard of living od people in the community improves. GOODS AND SERVICES. Meaning of Goods and Services. Goods are physical items or commodities that can be touched and felt and used to satisfy human wants. Services are intangible activities which cannot be touched and felt and do not deliver a tangible commodity. A market is a place where buyers and sellers meet or interact to buy goods and services such as food market, supermarket, the stock market and bond market. Human beings require goods and services to satisfy increasing human wants. Great services lead to better customer loyalty, higher revenues and lower costs. Types and importance of goods and services found in the local market.