C Raising of qualification requirements for anybody aspiring to join the security organs. This has paved way for employment of university graduates in the forces. D Introduction of professional training programmes for officers with the aim of improving the effectiveness of the organs of national security. E The terms and conditions of service for the members of the security organs have been improvedKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 140 f Community policing has-been introduced to help the security forces to get information from the public through hotlines and suggestion boxes. G There is increased patrolling by the Kenya navy as far north as Somali border to address maritime defence more seriously. H The aviation experts have recommended the relocation of Moi Airbase from its current location which id congested. Correctional services. The Correctional service Department in Kenya has its origins in the adoption of the India Prisons Act in Kenya in 1894 by the colonial government. Initially, prisons were under the supervision of the provincial Administration. In 1963 the Prisons Act was enacted to harmonize the treatment and conditions of offenders in Kenya s penal institutions. The Act s milestone provisions were; a Youth corrective training centres b Extra-mural and penal employment c Provision for organization, discipline, power and duties of prisons officers. Correctional services in Kenya are provided by the former Kenya Prisons Service. The Kenya Prisons Reform Programmee in 2001 adopted The Open Door Policy under which the following reforms were initiated. A Interactive collaboration with all stakeholders in the administration of criminal justice such as courts of law and members of the National Police Service. B Improvement in the management and conditions of the prisons, including rehabilitation programmes, with a view to empower prisoners with knowledge and skill, hasten their reintegration into society and empower them to be law abiding citizens upon release. The functions of Correctional Services in Kenya. A They Rehabilitate correct criminals through counseling. B They deter known criminals from committing other crimes. C They administer Punishment to sentenced criminals as prescribed by the court rulingsimplement the decisions of the courts regarding treatment of prisoners. D They confine prisoners convicted by the courts of law to ensure that the rights and freedoms of the public are protected. E They provide vocational training for prisoners in fields that they make them productive citizens of the country at the end of their jail term. F They keep watch over he behaviors of suspected criminals whose cases are still pending in the law courts.


D They confine prisoners convicted by the courts of law to ensure that the rights and freedoms of the public are protected. E They provide vocational training for prisoners in fields that they make them productive citizens of the country at the end of their jail term. F They keep watch over he behaviors of suspected criminals whose cases are still pending in the law courts. G They take care of the welfare of prisoners by providing them with the necessary medical attention. H They confine suspected dissidents who are a threat to state security. Challenges facing correctional services in Kenya a The challenge of overcrowding in prisoners on the rise, overcrowding in correctional facilities has been inevitable. This results in poor living and sanitation conditions for inmates. B Disease outbreak is a very common problem in our prisons mainly caused by inadequate and congested facilities. HIV and AIDS is rampant in prisons c Mistreatment of inmates by warders. This has once happened at Kingongo when someKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 141 inmates were allegedly tortured and killed by warders when they attempted to escape. D Food shortage, inadequate medical facilities and poor clothing further compound the situation in prisons. The following reforms have been undertaken to improve the conditions of correctional services in Kenya. A Improvement in the quality of food, medical services and living conditions for prisoners. B Provision of sufficient beddings and clothing. C Introduction of extra-mural Penal employment for petty offenders to ease congestion in the prisons. D There has been supply of new and comfortable motor vehicles for efficient transport in the correctional services department. E Petty offenders have been constantly released to ease congestion in prisons. For example the release of a record 11,500 prisoners in December 2003. Death row inmates who have also been in jail for over ten years have been released. F Easing of access to prisons visits by members of the public relatives. G Introduction of public Relations office to disseminate information. H Streamlining the hearing of cases with a view of keeping prisoners in remand for a short period before sentencing them. I The national government has also become directly involved the affairs of those receiving correction services. THE JUDICIARY. Judicial authority and legal system. Judicial Authority is derived from the people and is vested in courts and tribunals established by the constitution. Principles that guide Judicial Authority in Courts and Tribunals in Kenya.


Judicial authority and legal system. Judicial Authority is derived from the people and is vested in courts and tribunals established by the constitution. Principles that guide Judicial Authority in Courts and Tribunals in Kenya. A Justice must be done to all, irrespective of status. B Justice shall not be delayed. C Alternative forms of dispute resolution must be pursued including reconciliation, mediation, arbitration and even traditional dispute resolution mechanism. D Justice shall be administered without undue regard to procedural technicalities. E The purposes and principles of the constitution must be protected and promoted. Ways in which the traditional Dispute resolution is limited in Kenya. A The mechanisms used in traditional dispute resolution should not contravene the Bill of RIGHTS. B The traditional court should not operate in a way that is repugnant to justice and morality or results in outcomes that are regnant to justice or morality. C The operations of the traditional courts should not be inconsistent with the constitution. The structure of the judicial system in Kenya. The Hierarchy of the court system in the Kenyan judiciary is in accordance with; a The seriousness of the cases the courts handle. B The punishment they give out c The geographical area of operation. The courts have either original or appellate jurisdiction. Difference between original and appellate jurisdictions. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 142 Original jurisdiction refers to the ability of a court to hear cases brought to a court for the first time. Appellate jurisdiction is the powers of a court to hear appeals brought in from a lower court. The Judiciary consists of the judges of the superior courts, magistrates, other judicial officers and staff. The Head of the Judiciary is the Chief Justice with the Deputy Chief Justice as the Deputy Head of the Judiciary. Chief Registrar of the Judiciary is the chief administrator and accounting officer of the Judiciary. The System of courts is as follows 1. Superior Courts Supreme Court consisting of the Chief Justice who is the president of the court, the Deputy Chief Justice-the vice-president of the court; and five other judges. Appointment to the Supreme Court requires the following qualifications; a. Degree in law from a recognized university or an advocate of the high Court of Kenya. B. Atleast fifteen years experience as a superior court judge or a distinguished academic, judicial officer, legal practioner and or other relevant legal field. C. High moral character, integrity and impartiality.


Atleast fifteen years experience as a superior court judge or a distinguished academic, judicial officer, legal practioner and or other relevant legal field. C. High moral character, integrity and impartiality. Supreme Court Judges retire at the age of seventy Five Years. Functions of the Supreme Court of Kenya. A The Supreme Court has exclusive original jurisdiction to hear and determine disputes relating to the elections to the office of President. B It has appellate jurisdiction to hear and determine appeals from the Court of Appeal; and any other court or tribunal. C The Supreme Court gives an advisory opinion at the request of the national government, any State organ, or any county government with respect to any matter concerning county government. D It has of right in any case involving the interpretation or application of the Constitution. E All courts, other than the Supreme Court, are bound by the decisions of the Supreme Court 2. Court of Appeal consisting of judges, not fewer than twelve, a president of the Court of Appeal elected by the judges of the Court of Appeal from among themselves. The court of Appeal has membership of 30 Judges currently . Each judge to be appointed to the court of Appeal should have ten years experience as a superior court judge or atleast ten years as a distinguished academic or legal practioner. The court of appeal does not have original jurisdiction except on an application for a stay of execution pending appeal to it on contempt proceedings. Function of the Court of Appeal in Kenya. The Court of Appeal has jurisdiction to hear appeals from the High Court; and any other court or tribunal as prescribed by an Act of Parliament. 3. High Court headed by a Principal Judge of the High Court, who shall be elected by the judges of the High Court from among themselves. Functions of the high court of Kenya. A The High Court has unlimited original jurisdiction in criminal and civil Matters. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 143 b It has jurisdiction to determine the question whether a right or fundamental freedom in the Bill of Rights has been denied, violated, infringed or threatened. C It has jurisdiction to hear an appeal from a decision of a tribunal appointed to consider the removal of a person from office. For example, appeals from the courts martial, Business and rental Tribunals on matters related to the constitution.


Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 143 b It has jurisdiction to determine the question whether a right or fundamental freedom in the Bill of Rights has been denied, violated, infringed or threatened. C It has jurisdiction to hear an appeal from a decision of a tribunal appointed to consider the removal of a person from office. For example, appeals from the courts martial, Business and rental Tribunals on matters related to the constitution. D It has jurisdiction to hear any question respecting the interpretation of the Constitution including the determination of the question whether any law is inconsistent with or in contravention of this Constitution; e It determines any matter relating to constitutional powers of State organs in respect of county governments and any matter relating to the constitutional relationship between the levels of government. F The High Court has supervisory jurisdiction over the subordinate courts and over any person, body or authority exercising a judicial or quasi-judicial function, but not over a superior court g It listens to appeals from the lower courts when the parties involved are not satisfied. H It deals with disputes that take place outside Kenya's territorial waters maritime. I It hears appeals from decisions made by professional disciplinary tribunals involving advocates of the high court and other members of the profession. J It acts as a constitution court by determining whether a case brought before it is constitutional or unconstitutional. K It listens to appeals from special courts when the parties are not satisfied with the decision made. L It corrects amends the irregularities in decisions made by lower courts. M It hears cases that carry death sentences involve large sums of money. N It deals with cases that concern land succession disputes. O It hears election petitions. P It exercises divorce jurisdictions in matrimonial matters, q It hears appeals from tribunals E.g. Rent Restrictions, Business Premises Rent Tribunal. Termination of the services of a judge from office. A judge can be dismissed from service on the following grounds. A Inability to perform the functions of the office arising from mental or physical incapacity. B A breach of a code of conduct prescribed for judges or superior courts by an act of parliament. C Bankruptcy. D Incompetence. E Gross misconduct or misbehavior. The process of removal of a judge from office.


D Incompetence. E Gross misconduct or misbehavior. The process of removal of a judge from office. Such a process is initiated by the Judicial Service Commission on its own initiative or on petition of any person to it based on any of the dismissal grounds. The commission, if satisfied with the petition or initiative, forwards the matter to the president, who will suspend the said Judge, within Fourteen Days after receiving the petition and on advice of the Judicial Service Commission. A tribunal is then appointed to determine the case. If the Judge is aggrieved by the decision ofKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 144 the Tribunal, he she may appeal to the Supreme Court within ten days after the tribunal has made its recommendation. The president will finally act in accordance with the recommendation of the tribunal. 4. Subordinate courts. A The Magistrates courts. Its jurisdiction in both Civil and criminal cases is limited to geographical areas. However the courts have unlimited Jurisdiction in proceedings concerning claims under customary law such as dowry, divorce, legitimacy, inheritance and the administration of estates of the deceased person. They have unlimited jurisdiction in dealing with matters related to land, adultery and inheritance. These are the courts responsible for sentencing persons who have broken law of the land. Reasons why a person who has broken the law should be sentenced by a court. I. To deter the criminal from future crimes. Ii. To deter others from committing similar offences since they would have known the punishment for breaking the law. Iii. To secure for the public a period o protection from the offender who is in prison. Iv. To reform the criminal through counseling and corrective training v. To satisfy the demands of the people for retribution through punitive justice. B The Kadhis courts. The courts are headed by a Chief Kadhi and not fewer than three Kadhis Qualifications for appointment as a Kadhi. A. One must profess the Muslim religion. B. One must possess such knowledge of the Muslim law applicable to any sects of Muslims. The jurisdiction of the Kadhis Court is limited to the determination of questions of Muslim Law relating to personal status, marriage, divorce or inheritance in proceedings in which all concerned parties profess to the Muslim religion. C The Courts Martial. This is a subordinate court that was established under the Armed Forces Act after the abortive 82 Air force coup. It has penal or disciplinary powers to ensure discipline within the armed forces.


C The Courts Martial. This is a subordinate court that was established under the Armed Forces Act after the abortive 82 Air force coup. It has penal or disciplinary powers to ensure discipline within the armed forces. They try cases involving assisting an enemy, cowardice, desertion, insubordination, neglect of duty, drunkenness, malingering and absence without leave. There is no right to appeal to the high court against the decisions of the courts martial unless they involve constitutional cases. Industrial Court Juvenile Court The Judicial Service Commission. Membership of the JSC is as follows. A The Chief Justice who is the Chairperson of the Commission. B One Supreme Court judge elected by the judges of the Supreme Court. C One court of appeal judge elected by the judges of the court of appeal. D One High Court Judge and one magistrate, of whom one must be a woman and one a man elected by members of the association of judges and magistrates. E The attorney General. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 145 f Two advocates , one woman and one man each with atleast fifteen years of experience, elected by members of the statutory body responsible for the professional regulation of advocates LSK g One person nominated by the public Service Commission. H One woman and one man to represent the public, not being a lawyer, appointed by the president with the approval of the national assembly. I The chief registrar of the Judiciary, who will be secretary to the commission. Members, except the AG and Chief Justice hold office for a term of 5 years and can be reappointed for one further term Functions of the Judicial Service Commission a The Judicial Service Commission promotes and facilitates the independence and accountability of the judiciary and the efficient, effective and transparent administration of justice. B It recommends to the President persons for appointment as judges. C It reviews and makes recommendations on the conditions of service of judges and judicial officers, other than their remuneration; and the staff of the Judiciary. D It appoints, receives complaints against, investigates and removes from office or otherwise discipline registrars, magistrates, other judicial officers and other staff of the Judiciary. E It prepares and implements programmes for the continuing education and training of judges and judicial officers. F It advises the national government on improving the efficiency of the administration of justice. The concept of Independence of the Judiciary in Kenya.


E It prepares and implements programmes for the continuing education and training of judges and judicial officers. F It advises the national government on improving the efficiency of the administration of justice. The concept of Independence of the Judiciary in Kenya. A In the exercise of judicial authority, the Judiciary is subject only to the Constitution and the law and not to the control or direction of any person or authority. B The office of a judge of a superior court cannot be abolished while there is a substantive holder of the office. C A member of the Judiciary is not liable in an action or suit in respect of anything done or omitted to be done in good faith in the lawful performance of a judicial function. The Judicial Act protects Judges and Magistrates against any form of victimization and molestation. D There is a separate system of command for the judiciary unlike other government departments. E Appointment of the magistrates is done independently by JSC, which is independent of PSC. The president in consultation with the Judicial Service Commission appoints the Judges. F The judges are bound by the Oath of Allegiance to perform their duties without fear or favour. G Judges enjoy security of tenure. H Statutes fix salaries and allowances of Judges. Challenges facing the judiciary in Kenya. A There is constant Conflict between the three arms of government. This hinders the just operation of the judiciary. Too much interference from the Executive has undermined the independence of the Judiciary. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 146 b The long court processes have always delayed dispensation of justice in Kenya. C Corruption. This is common among the Judges who sometimes compromise their integrity due to greed Public doubts of its impartiality due to rampant corruption d Inadequate personnel. There are few qualified judges. For example in 2002, there were 47 judges serving a population of 30 million people. This causes delay in hearing of cases. E There is constant termination of cases by the Attorney General thereby denying justice to some genuine cases. F Poor co-ordination within the court system g Incompetence of some judicial officers. E.g. poor and inconsistent judgments. This has been attributed to flawed appointments and promotion procedures. H Lack of adequate funds to cater for the needs of the judiciary. This has led to inadequate court structures and facilities such as equipment, chairs, libraries etc.


This has been attributed to flawed appointments and promotion procedures. H Lack of adequate funds to cater for the needs of the judiciary. This has led to inadequate court structures and facilities such as equipment, chairs, libraries etc. I Lack of continuous legal education to keep them a breast of the latest legal development and skills in information technology. J There is a lot of ignorance among the public in Kenya on judicial affairs and their legal rights ignorance on the legal rights. Members of the public fear the courts and the court language. K Information on the judiciary has not been made available to the public and it appears to be a preserve of a few. L Litigation fees are high limits public s access to the courts. Solutions to the problems facing Kenya s Judiciary. A There has been increased legal education given to officers and members of the public by the judiciary and other bodies like Kituo Cha Sheria, which releases information booklets and offers free legal advice to people. B The terms and conditions of service for judges and other officers were improved in 2002 in order to make them work better. C The government also set up a committee led by Justice Aaron Ringera in what was famously referred to as Judicial Surgery, to investigate the conduct of judges. Those who were adversely mentioned in the report were suspended. D The government has recruited more legal officers to reduce the backlog of cases in courts. E The passing of the Vetting of Judges and Magistrates Act, 2011 VJM Act In March 2011, established the Judges and Magistrates Vetting Board, chaired by Sharad Rao ,which is carrying out the vetting exercise to restore public confidence in the Judiciary. Some of the mile stone decisions undertaken to restore public confidence in the judiciary include; The suspension of Deputy CJ Nancy Baraza and her final resignation for harrassing an innocent security guard. Dropping of President of the Kenyan Appellate Court Justice Riaga Omollo for political bias and authoritarian demeanor while carrying out his activities on the bench. Dropping Judge Samuel Bosire for condoning torture of suspects during Coup trial in 1982. Dropping of Court of Appeal Judge Emmanuel Okubasu for being unsuitable to continue holding office.


Dropping of President of the Kenyan Appellate Court Justice Riaga Omollo for political bias and authoritarian demeanor while carrying out his activities on the bench. Dropping Judge Samuel Bosire for condoning torture of suspects during Coup trial in 1982. Dropping of Court of Appeal Judge Emmanuel Okubasu for being unsuitable to continue holding office. Joseph NyamuKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 147 Justice Mohammed Ibrahim, though Praised as impartial and immune to corruption, was dropped for having an overflowing in-tray of cases Appellate judge Roselyn Nambuye was kicked out due to delays in delivering more than 270 judgements and being too wordy in her ruling. However Nambuye and Mohammed Ibrahim successfully appealed against the decision which once more saw their reinstatement on 21at September 2012 pending further investigations. The Rule of Law. Meaning of the Rule of Law . This is the absolute supremacy or predominance of regular law as opposed to arbitrary power. The concept is associated with the view of Albert Venn Dicey who published a book, The Law of the Constitution in 1895, in which he presupposes the supremacy of the law. That all persons whether individual or in government, are subject to the law. In Kenya, all citizens and residents are subject to and governed by the same law irrespective of their status, race and religion Elements of the rule of law. A The principle of legality. The state can only exercise those powers granted to it by the law. It should be a government of laws and not of men. B Separation of powers of the three arms of government. This refers to the practice of dividing the powers of government into the executive, legislature and judicial functions equally and putting in place a system of checks and balances to ensure they control each other. The three functions are to be independent of each other. C Equality before the law. Everyone should be treated equally under the law. D The judiciary must work without favour or the fear of intimidation in the administration of justice. The principles of the Rule of Law. Joseph Raz in an article titled, The Rule of Law and its Virtues outlines the following eight principles of the rule of law. A All laws should be prospective and open. A new law should only apply in future. B Laws should be durable and not changing every other day.


A All laws should be prospective and open. A new law should only apply in future.b Laws should be durable and not changing every other day.c No centre of power, and specifically parliament, should enjoy monopoly right in making laws for citizens of a country, the judiciary should scrutinize parliament.d The independence of the judiciary should be protected.e The principal of natural justice should form an important element in the judicial system of a country.f There must be easy accessibility to the courts of law. They should neither be expensive nor intimidating.g The security forces should not use force in contravention of the law. Meaning of the concept of Natural Justice.it refers to the requirement that the bodies that resolve disputes adhere to at least minimum standard of fair decision making Two principles govern the Concept of Natural Justice.1.The person affected by an impending decision must have the right to a fair hearing prior to the decision being made. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2013 Page 148 2.The person or body hearing the case should act in good faith and without Bias. The right to fair hearing a The accused must be given prior notice of the case against him and given a chance to respond.b The accused must be given chance of knowing the case against him and stating his own case.c The person charged should have opportunity to consider, challenge and contradict any evidence, being fully aware of the allegations leveled against him.d The person has a right to legal representation by a legally qualified person.e All legal decisions should have reasons within the law..The rule against Bias. Full inquiry must be conducted into the circumstances involved before the Arbitrator makes a decision. The decision made should be impartial with the adjudicator lacking interest in the outcome. A person is presumed innocent until proven otherwise and the police have no right to beat up suspects. End.


Historical events must contain elements of truth. The study of humankind s past can be classified systematically into three; Social history- dealing with the traditions, values and cultural practices of a people Economic history; dealing with the means of livelihood of a people, such as hunting, gathering, agriculture and trade. Political history; dealing with the control system in a society, for example maintenance of law and order, leadership and security. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 2 THE MEANING OF GOVERNMENT Derived from the verb govern, government means to exercise authority over. To rule or control. Or having power to direct or conduct the policies and public affairs of a country or an institution. In our study, the term government refers to a group of people within a state or a country given authority to organize, direct and control the affairs of the state or country. In Kenya, the government has three arms. The legislature: - Commonly referred to as parliament, this is a law making arm of government. It includes the National assembly and the president. The executive: - this is the arm of government which implements laws. It includes the president, the cabinet and the civil service. The judiciary: - this is the arm of government responsible for seeing that the laws made are constitutional, that they are followed and that those who break them are punished. It is commonly referred to as the courts. Jean Jacques Rousseau, in his book, The Social Contract, describes government as an intermediate body set up by the subjects to ensure equity fairness and the execution of laws while maintaining social and political liberty In this sense, government is not dictatorial since its authority is derived from the people. People must however be free to choose their leaders, even remove those in power and replace them with others, in order to ensure the existence of the principal of fairness. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT There are four forms of government: Democratic government This is a type of government in which rulers regularly seek public mandate through popular vote. Such governments are based on the principles of free and fair elections. According to Abraham Lincoln, an American statesman, they are governments of the people, for the people and by the people .In such a government, freedoms and rights are provided for in the constitution that governs the law of the nation.


FORMS OF GOVERNMENT There are four forms of government: Democratic government This is a type of government in which rulers regularly seek public mandate through popular vote. Such governments are based on the principles of free and fair elections. According to Abraham Lincoln, an American statesman, they are governments of the people, for the people and by the people .In such a government, freedoms and rights are provided for in the constitution that governs the law of the nation. Aristocratic government Aristos best Kratos - powers An aristocracy is a form of government in which a group of people from the highest social class the royalty- in a society rule over others. Any member of the nobility can seek election or appointment to a government office while other citizens who are less privileged are there to be ruled. The King or Queen is the head of government while senior positions in the gover-nment are given to the privileged members from among the nobles. The nobles are considered superior to others human beings because of the wealthy family back-ground they are born into and their superior education. They are considered a rare breed of people. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 3 Monarchical government This is a form of government where democracy is practiced but aristocratical power is respected. Parliament is the supreme organ but the monarchy- the royalty that are in power be it the king or queen is retained as a tradition, and respected as head of state. Monarchical governments are classified into two;Absolute monarchy: - which refers to the unrestricted power of the Head of State. The monarchy is dictatorial. Constitutional monarchy;- The monarchical power , which is restricted is determ-ined by what is spelt out in the constitution. Such a system of government is found in Lesotho and Britain. Dictatorial government Dictatorship is a system of government where the ruler has total power over his subjects. Dictators are the sole authority where they rule. They make the law and execute justice and exercise their rule forcefully, suppressing their subjects at will. They curtail freedom of other subjects and impose their will over others. Examples of world dictators; Adolf Hitler of Germany who instigated the Germans into believing they were superior race and incited them against the Jews. Idi Amin of Uganda who ruled with a rod of iron NB; the most ideal form of government is where the subjects go to the ballot to elect the people to lead them.


K It provides intellectual fulfillment to the learner. Through an in -depth study of history, one s mind is enriched. Importance of studying government a It helps us to appreciate the importance of government. B Helps us understand how laws are made and enforced c Helps us understand the organs of the state and the powers vested in them d Helps us understand how government raises and spends revenue. E Helps us compare our government system with other systems of government in other countries. F Understand how development policies are formulated and implemented. G It makes us know our roles as citizens and the roles of the leaders who govern us. This makes better law-abiding citizens. H Its study helps us understand our responsibilities as well as the limitations within which e must operate for the well-being of every member of the society. I It helps us appreciate the constitution and the process of making and reviewing laws and statutes. J It influences career choices. For example, those who choose to specialize in public administration will find the study of government very useful. SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT There three main sources of information on history and government; a Unwritten sources. B Written sources. C Electronic sources Unwritten sources This refers to historical information which is not recorded in writing. Unwritten sources of historical information include oral traditions, linguistics languages , Anthropology culture archaeology, paleontology and genetics. Oral traditions This refers to the practice of handing down historical information by word of mouth from one Generation to the next. This forms a very important source of historical information especially where exists a non-literate society who might not be able to read. Oral traditions include folk tales, proverbs, songs and stories. Songs, proverbs folktales and stories told to a younger generation have been very instrumental in the passing of information from one generation to the other. For example, a song about our struggle for independence in Kenya passes very important information to the younger generation, who not yet had born at that time. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 5 Advantages of oral traditions as a source of information a. Oral traditions hands over historical facts from one generation to another in the absence of written records. B. It is the best source of historical information since even the illiterate can learn their h history using oral traditions c. It is also a form of entertainment.


B. It is the best source of historical information since even the illiterate can learn their h history using oral traditions c. It is also a form of entertainment. For example through songs, folktales stories and proverbs, people get entertained. D. It complements other sources of information. E. The source of information is captivating especially if it is narrated by a person who participated in the event himself. For example, an Ex- World War II veteran narrating about the war. Disadvantages of oral traditions as a source of information a. The truth and correctness of oral traditions become unreliable especially when the narrator deliberately conceals some information or lies. People tend to conceal their failures while talking so much about their success. B. Information can b exaggerated as they are transmitted by elders to successive generations. At times it is difficult to differentiate between what is real and what is imagined. C. Some information or facts may be forgotten or omitted since oral traditions depend heavily on human memory. This makes the information passed unreliable. D. Dates of information may be lacking. The source may not give correct chronology of events because it depends on human memory. It is common that people forget important dates and information about a particular past event. E. It is an expensive method. One has to pay for the informant s transportation, lunch and accommodation. A historian may also need to travel to far places to find information. F. It is time consuming. One requires a lot of time to interview one individual. Where many people are to be interviewed, it may take a long time. Linguistics This refers to the scientific study of languages. Historical linguistics is the study of language as it changes n the course of time. It seeks to trace the principles of language change and establish the current genealogical classification of a particular language. Such a study helps in discovering language form, content, vocabulary and historical experiences of the people who speak the language. Distribution of language and relationship between languages is important to a historian. People who speak related languages may be assumed to have a common origin, be connected, or had been in close contact at sometime in the past. Variations between languages of the same family can show how long ago the break in contact occurred. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 6 Advantages of linguistics as a source of information a. Through linguistics, Facts can be obtained about the movement of people and their relationship.


People who speak related languages may be assumed to have a common origin, be connected, or had been in close contact at sometime in the past. Variations between languages of the same family can show how long ago the break in contact occurred. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 6 Advantages of linguistics as a source of information a. Through linguistics, Facts can be obtained about the movement of people and their relationship. Such information helps experts to correctly group languages according to language families. B. It helps us understand communities better as people with a common language may have common origin. It is good for establishing facts on origin, migration and settlement. C. Linguistics complements other sources of historical information. For example, language as a medium of communication helps those using oral tradition to gather information from various sources. D. Language has enabled historical linguists to discover links between different people which were previously unknown. E.g. it is now known that the Bantus had a common origin and possibly spoke one language. However due to long periods of separation between various Bantu groups, through migrations, these groups may not understand each other s language today. E. Linguistics helps in the dating of migration of people. Language drawn from a parent language will change in a certain way and rate through time. When comparing parent language with derived language, it is possible to know how long the derived language has independently from the parent language. E.g. Sheng language and Kiswahili parent language . Limitations in the use of linguistics as a source of information a. It is time consuming learning a language takes a long time therefore delaying acquisition of information. B. There is a danger of omitting a word when translating a language. In the process, vital information about a people s history may be lost. C. Inaccurate information can be passed on where wrong words are borrowed from other languages. D. Some words may just be difficult to understand. E. Some languages have become archaic and irrelevant hence difficult to translate. F. Misinterpretation of words may make them difficult to understand. G. Linguistic analysis for classification purposes may fail to take into account languages with time. H. One word may have different meanings in different languages. This can easily confuse a researcher. For example, Nyoro in Kikuyu means smooth , while the same word in Luo means yesterday . I.


This can easily confuse a researcher. For example, Nyoro in Kikuyu means smooth , while the same word in Luo means yesterday . I. Lack of original speakers in the language under study limits research findings. Anthropology This is the study of human beings, their origin, development, customs, beliefs, and social attributes like music, dance, drama, and religious beliefs and practices. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 7 Anthropologists have to live among the people under study in order to experience their way of life in order to understand and explain structures of societies, forms of social organization, institutions, descent, marriage, forms of government, systems of inheritance, religious customs and cultural values. The anthropological description of the beliefs and customs of a people will help the historian to determine the cultural past of the people Advantages of anthropology as a source of information a. By living among the people, anthropologists help to discover, understand and explain structures of societies, forms of social organization, cultures, etc. B. Anthropologists assist historians to determine the cultural past of the people. C. It also gives a deeper understanding of a particular aspect of a people s culture. Limitations in the use of anthropology as a source of information a. It is an expensive method as it involves living among the people. B. It is a time-consuming method of acquiring information. C. It is difficult for a researcher to adapt to the environment since the people they are studying may be of a totally different culture. Where they succeed in adapting, they face the risk of losing their own culture. D. People under study may try to behave differently when the researcher is around. A researcher may therefore miss important details. Genetic studies Genetics is the scientific study of the ways in which characteristics are passed from parents to their offspring. The study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics. It deals with the ay human beings adapted to the circumstances in their environment and utilized available plants and animals to meet their needs. When used in relation to pants genetic studies helps us trace the origin of various species by identifying them with the region where large numbers of them are found today. After this, interpretation of their movement is made. The appearance of new cultivated varieties can be identified with the people whose economy they form a part. Also, common genes or characteristics among a group of people may indicate some relationships.


After this, interpretation of their movement is made. The appearance of new cultivated varieties can be identified with the people whose economy they form a part. Also, common genes or characteristics among a group of people may indicate some relationships. Archaeology and paleontology Archaeology is the study of man s past through scientific analysis of the remains of material remains of his culture, e.g. weapons, tools, houses, clothing, utensils, paintings sculpture, pottery, coins, jewellery, cutlery, beads and work o arts. The archaeologist reconstructs the activities and way of life of people who lived in prehistoric times from various evidence remains of the material culture. Other items that can be used in archaeology include remains of charcoal and carbo-nized seeds, remains of cloth or garments, remains of dwelling laces. After studying the available artifacts, the archaeologist formulates his concept of a people s civilization at the time the artifacts were used. The existence of artifacts in an area can enable the historian to deduce the material culture of the people who lived n the past. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 8 Palaeontology is the scientific study of the evolution and structure of extinct plants and animals fossils through scientific examination of fossil remains. Historians and archaeologists work with natural scientists like paleontologists, geologists and ecologists and chemistry in discovering fossils, getting information about soil structure, interpreting man s relationship to his environment and dating of fossils. Methods used by archaeologists and paleontologists in discovering a historical site. A By looking at areas where tectonic forces faulting or erosion have occurred. In such areas, surfaces which may give important clues to the point of finding fossils and artefacts are exposed. B Use of vision. Sometimes vision may help them find on the surface a small part of an early settlement such as a few stones in a regular pattern. C Use of historical research. A place that may be mentioned in a historical document or in an oral narrative may give a clue to the geography of the area and open up further inquiries into the past civilization of such a clue.e.g Omo River Valley, Olduvai Gorge, Ur and Babylon. D Use of experience. An archaeologist may also use his long experience and skill to identify a potential site for archaeological excavation. E During cultivation and building construction, farmers and builders may accidentally expose ancient objects that could arouse the curiosity of researchers.


D Use of experience. An archaeologist may also use his long experience and skill to identify a potential site for archaeological excavation. E During cultivation and building construction, farmers and builders may accidentally expose ancient objects that could arouse the curiosity of researchers. For example Nyayo ya Mungu in Tanzania was a single footprint on a rock surface that was found in 1995 and became evidence of the existence of early human beings. Advantages of using archaeology a Archaeology gives us detailed information on material culture that other sources may not have. B Archaeology gives a sense of time, as the artifacts are dated. C It complements other sources of information and thus ensures authenticity of the information. D It provides information of varied nature depending on the materials found on the site. For example, if tools, weapons, coins, bones, rock paintings and other items are located, at a site, a lot of information maybe deduced. Limitations of using archaeology a It is an expensive source of information. This is because one has to hire labourers to excavate the site and get artefacts and take them to laboratories for analysis. B It is a time-consuming method. The researcher needs a lot of time to prepare for an excavation and take material for analysis in laboratories. C It is sometime difficult for archaeologists to locate an archaeological site. D Some artefacts and fossils are fragile and can therefore break or disintegrate during excavation. This may result in distortion of the analysis of the artefacts. E Archaeology is only limited to the study of the ancient period and therefore cannot be used to study recent history. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 9 f Archaeological information may sometimes be inaccurate since it is often bases on inferences conclusions and reconstructions. G With archaeology, it may not be easy to accurately determine the date when events took place. It is only estimated through the method of dating fossils. H There are very few archaeological experts and facilities for interpreting archaeological evidence in Kenya. Quite often, artefacts excavated from Kenya are taken to European countries for dating and analysis. What things do archaeologists use to construct the activities of people who lived in prehistory times? A Looking for regions of tectonism faulting associated with fossils and artifacts. B They look for unique features e.g. stone patterns.


A Looking for regions of tectonism faulting associated with fossils and artifacts. B They look for unique features e.g. stone patterns. C Remains of fossils and artifacts dug out by farmers and constructors. D They dig, excavate for artifacts and fossils. E They study artifacts and fossils found. F They make research in regions associated with evolution of man e.g. rift valley. G They classify the artifacts and fossils. H They use chemical and scientific methods to find ages of their findings e.g. carbon 14dating method What problems face archaeologists in their work of re writing history using unwritten sources? A The exercise is too expensive. B It is dangerous and tedious. Animals like wild dogs can attack scientists. C Identification of the site is not easy because some artifacts are buried. D Some artifacts can be destroyed in the process of digging. E Dating of fossils is difficult. F Personnel are few hence more work. G Poor infrastructure in rural areas where their researches are mainly based h Archaeologists may suffer from diseases caused by changes in climate. I Sometimes the climate of their residence differs from that of the place they are taking METHODS OF DATING FOSSILS There are six methods through which scientists may use to arrive at the age of fossils. 1. Geological periods These are periods that have been given names by paleontologists and geologists for the past ages. They are characterized by the successive type of pants and animals found, and the climatic changes. The recent period is the Holocene period which began 10,000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene. 2. Chemical dating They exist in two types: a Radio- carbon dating For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 10 This method involves a measure of the rate of decay of carbon -14 in fossils and organic substances. Carbon -14 is a naturally existing radioactive element isotope of carbon of relative atomic mass fourteen and is found in the Carbon Dioxide which is present in the atmosphere. It is absorbed by plants and consequently by all living organisms during their lifetime. When plant or animal dies, absorption stops. Carbon -14 already absorbed begins to disintegrate at a fixed rate from the time of death.


Carbon -14 is a naturally existing radioactive element isotope of carbon of relative atomic mass fourteen and is found in the Carbon Dioxide which is present in the atmosphere. It is absorbed by plants and consequently by all living organisms during their lifetime. When plant or animal dies, absorption stops. Carbon -14 already absorbed begins to disintegrate at a fixed rate from the time of death. If the amount of carbon -14 still remaining in an organic sample can be measured and related to the content of the isotope in the modern plant or animal, the rate of decay will be known. The date at which the sample was buried will e known. The measurement tells us how long it is since the organism died. The unit of measuring is known as half-life- the number of years it takes for half the carbon -14 to decay. However the accuracy of radio-carbon dating is limited to up to 40,000 years ago. B Potassium argon method This is the method used to date volcanic ash. During volcanic eruptions, potassium is emitted. As soon as the potassium is deposited, the radio-active potassium-40 immediately begins to decay into the gas argon. It is assumed that the argon is retained in the mineral or rock unless there is earth movement. Given that the rate of decay of potassium is known, the amount of argon-40 compared with the amount of potassium, gives a direct measure of age. Because of the slower rate of decay of potassium than the decay of carbon-14, the potassium argon method is used for dates ranging from hundreds of millions of years to 30,000 years. Recently methods have been developed for measuring the potassium and argon simultaneously on the same sample using nuclear. 3. Stratigraphy This is the study and interpretation of the layers of rock successively deposited at one place. It is useful in determining dates for areas affected by sedimentation. Through Stratigraphy, a geological time-chart is obtained showing which rock was formed earlier or later. 4. Fission-track dating This is a method developed for dating Pleistocene samples. The ages of glass and other mineral objects estimated by observing the tracks made in them by the fission fragments of uranium nuclei they contain. It requires that Uranium must be present. The age obtained dates from the time the object solidified.


The ages of glass and other mineral objects estimated by observing the tracks made in them by the fission fragments of uranium nuclei they contain. It requires that Uranium must be present. The age obtained dates from the time the object solidified. This method has been proved reliable by being able to provide same reading from a sample of glass with a lump of pumice from Olduvai Gorge corresponding with the potassium argon dates from the same layer. 5. Lexico-statistics dating Lexico-statistics is the statistical study of the vocabulary of languages with the intentions of determining their ages and their historical links with other languages. The study is based on the assumption that all languages have a basic vocabulary which will change slowly at a common rate for all languages at all times. The existence of reconstructed vocabulary of the parent language in derivative languages shows the For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 11 Relationship between the two Glottochronology, a subdivision of Lexico-statistics, attempts to establish that languages are historically related .by this method, there is an effort to express rates of language development by formulae precise enough to enable dates when change occurred to be calculated 6. Statistical dating Through a system of averaging, the length of a generation can be determined for a Particular society and dates estimated for events associated with certain generations. If the number and names of successive age-sets are remembered, the same system of averaging can be used. Advantages of using unwritten sources of information on history and government a Information about people s movement and relationship is given. B It is very efficient where there still existed illiteracy and people could not write or read. C It informs us of events in the absence of written materials. D Data received is primary firsthand so accuracy is enhanced. E Materials collected or excavated can be stored in museums for future reference. F They create employment in museums where they are stored. G Information not captured by written sources can be obtained from oral traditions. H There is a sense of reality as it involves things that are seen and touched. I Unwritten sources especially linguistics help in discovering the links between different people, which were previously unknown. J Detailed information on material culture may be obtained. K Dating of the migration of people is more accurate in unwritten sources e.g. In linguistics. Written sources These are sources in which letters or any other symbols have been put on the surface for the purpose of communication.


K Dating of the migration of people is more accurate in unwritten sources e.g. In linguistics. Written sources These are sources in which letters or any other symbols have been put on the surface for the purpose of communication. They include books, archives, constitutions, journals, novels, plays, newspapers, magazines, documentaries, dairies, annual reports, periodical and paintings. Written sources are classified into two; a Archives and early manuscripts Archives are a collection of historical documents or records, especially those carrying classified information of a government or an organization, which after a period of time are accessible to the public. They are also places where government, public and other historical records are kept.-they are resource centres for information. A manuscript is an author s handwritten or typed text that has not yet been published. Early manuscripts include stone tablets and scrolls. The bible and Quran are based on these two. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 12 b Printed sources They include books, journals, novels, plays, newspapers, magazines, documentaries, dairies and annual reports. Photographs employ both electronic and printing processes but basically fall under printed sourcesWorks of fiction such as films plays and novels are important source of historical information. Fiction is literature in form of prose, especially novels that describe imaginary events and people .Since work of fiction involves feelings and emotions, they can give more information about history. Also reading good historical novels arouses interest in history and gives the reader intellectual fulfillment. Newspapers convey new or fresh events, which with the passing of time becomes history. Advantages of written records a Written records preserve history since events are recorded for future reference. They are a store of information. B Written information can reach or be distributed to all literate people all over the world. C Written sources are less costly compared to those of anthropology or archaeology. D Unlike oral tradition sources which are largely dependent on human memory, written sources are more accurate as information is preserved exactly as it was recorded. E Written records may be written or translated into different languages thus reaching different people all over the world. F Written records are in most cases reliable as biases and prejudices coming from authors can be limited. This can be done by comparing written material with statistical data from other sources. Limitations a Where an author omits essential information for one reason or another, a written source may be rendered quite unreliable.


F Written records are in most cases reliable as biases and prejudices coming from authors can be limited. This can be done by comparing written material with statistical data from other sources. Limitations a Where an author omits essential information for one reason or another, a written source may be rendered quite unreliable. B Written information may be misunderstood or misinterpreted by readers either with the intention of discrediting others or to suit one s needs. C Writers at times are biased since the write from their particular point of view. For example, the writings of early explorers and missionaries. D Written records are only limited to literate people within the society. Are not useful to illiterate people in the absence of literate members of the society. E At times, depending on the society involved, acquiring written records may be very costly. F Reading written records is often time-consuming. Electronic sources These include microfilms, films, videos, radio, and television Microfilms These are films on which extremely small photographs microphotography of documents and printed matter are stored. They are tinny but when magnified can be clearly read. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 13 The importance of converting documents into microfilms is for preservation purposes and saving storage spaces. Radio This is an authoritative source of historical information that captures words and emotions of an event as I was. For example radio news on the president s speeches gives listeners the actual information on national matters. However, radio lacks the vividness found in television and films. Audio- visual sources These include television, films and videos. Films carry indisputable historical facts as action is recorded live. They also give better understanding of some aspects of the social history of a given people with regard to their music, dress and leisure activities. Videos and films make the past come alive. However, since films are acted, they can sometimes be unrealistic as they may not present facts but an exaggerated version of an event. Television on its part gives good historical information as it depicts the situation as it was. Databanks and databases Databanks are large stores of organized information which can be accessed in number of ways. E.g. if it is a book, information can be accessed through an index, a table of content or by browsing. Electronic databases are stored in computer and facilitate easy and faster retrieval of information.


Databanks and databases Databanks are large stores of organized information which can be accessed in number of ways. E.g. if it is a book, information can be accessed through an index, a table of content or by browsing. Electronic databases are stored in computer and facilitate easy and faster retrieval of information. One can search for information by use of a number of search terms. Information in a database can be printed when required but can also be accessed instantly on computer. Limitations of using electronics as a source of information in history and government a They are Subject to bias since most audio visuals contain foreign materials carrying the bias of the producer. B Some are limited to the literate only e.g. information in data bases and microfilms can only be accessed by literate people and even computer literate people only. C The information may be inaccurate only giving what is appealing to the public. TV crew depict only what they want to. Censorship may leave out vital information. D Electronic sources of information are too expensive; most people cannot afford e.g. TV, Radios. E Some acted films are unrealistic and therefore contain exaggerated information. EARLY MAN In the study of early man, we will seek to answer questions that human beings have always sought to answer about how they appeared on earth, whether they were created and where the universe came from. The origin of Human Beings A number of theories have been put forward to explain the origin of human beings. A. The creation theory. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 14 b. The mythical traditional theory c. The evolution theory The Creation theory The Jews, Christians and Muslims recognize the creation story as narrated in the first book of bible and in Qur an. That the whole universe was created by god. That God also created man, woman and all living things and all non-living creatures. Man was created in God s own image and woman created to provide man with companionship. The Mythical Theory Among African communities, there are myths about their origin all of them pointing to the fact that the first man was created by God. Examples: Among the Agikuyu, their God Ngai created the first man, Gikuyu. He the provided him with a wife, Mumbi. He gave him land at Mugurwe wa Gathanga.


Examples: Among the Agikuyu, their God Ngai created the first man, Gikuyu. He the provided him with a wife, Mumbi. He gave him land at Mugurwe wa Gathanga. One of the myths among the Nandi state that the first two people, male and female came from the knees of a giant man, when the knees began swelling and later burs for the two to come out from each of the either knees. The Evolution Theory Charles Darwin, an English man living between 1809 and 1882 questioned the acceptance of the creation theory. Through scientific expedition to South America and the pacific islands in 1831, he developed interest in fossils remains of plants and animals found beneath the earth s surface. In 1859; he published his ideas in a book titled The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. The ideas enlisted instant battles from the Christian fraternity save for one supporter, Huxley. Clearly the theory of evolution was not accepted but it helped to make people aware of the new ideas concerning the origin of man. What is evolution? Evolution can be defined as the process of change in living organisms over a number of years, frequently involving the beginning of new species from earlier species. According to Charles Darwin, man transformed from simple life slowly over millions of years through environmental mutation, natural selection, isolation and adaptation. Mutation was a stage of abrupt change. Natural selection is an instinct by which the stronger species out compete the weaker for resources. Adaptation is where the surviving species isolate themselves from others as they adapt to new environment through body changes and technological changes e.g. ability to grow crops and make shelter. Darwin s theory of natural selection comprises the following points. All organisms or creatures are uniquely different and this uniqueness is based on heredity factors which an organism has from birth. Although many young organisms are produced, few manage to develop to maturity. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 15 The organisms that manage to grow to maturity and reproduce are those that are able to constantly adapt to the existing environment. In view of the limited resources, even after mutation, Darwin argued that only the fittest organisms survive as the weak species become extinct. This theory is popularly known as survival for the fittest .According to Darwin, isolation and adaptation is the final stage in the evolution process.


Although many young organisms are produced, few manage to develop to maturity. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 15 The organisms that manage to grow to maturity and reproduce are those that are able to constantly adapt to the existing environment. In view of the limited resources, even after mutation, Darwin argued that only the fittest organisms survive as the weak species become extinct. This theory is popularly known as survival for the fittest .According to Darwin, isolation and adaptation is the final stage in the evolution process. Having survived through mutation and natural selection, the merging species increase in number. This leads to search for basic needs and in the process a species may be isolated from the rest and then finally adapt to the new environment. The theory of evolution holds that Humans belong to the animal kingdom and that man has evolved over the years. Man is a primate just as apes like gorillas, chimpanzees and monkeys. However, man belongs to the family of hominidae, while apes belong to the family of pongidae. Man according to Darwin developed over the years from his ape-like ancestors. Evolution and adaptation of man The earliest Mammals lived on trees for two reasons; a There was more supply of food o trees such as insects, leaves and birds eggs b Security. Animals were more secure from their enemies while up on trees Man evolved from this kind of animals Archaeological evidence points at East Africa as the cradle of mankind. Reasons why East Africa is regarded as the place where man first evolved a Evidence from archaeologists show that the earliest apes first evolved around lake and rift valley areas. And if man evolved from apes, then the first man must have appeared in east Africa. B The savanna landscapes found in east Africa favored evolution while the conditions elsewhere forests and deserts Were unfavourable. C The bones and weapons and tools which archaeologists are finding are proofs to this. These findings are widespread in Olduvai Gorge, Olorgesaillie, and Ngorongoro and around lakes of east Africa. D The discovery of remains of early hominids and their material culture which form a pattern of human evolution prove this. E.g. we can trace the evolutionary process from Dryopithecus to Ramapithecus to Australopithecus to Homo habilis to Homo erectus to Homo sapiens.


D The discovery of remains of early hominids and their material culture which form a pattern of human evolution prove this. E.g. we can trace the evolutionary process from Dryopithecus to Ramapithecus to Australopithecus to Homo habilis to Homo erectus to Homo sapiens. Important archaeological sites found in East Africa In Kenya; - Rusinga Island, Fort Ternan near Kericho, Kariandusi near Elementaita, Gambles cave, Olorgesaillie, Kobi For a near Lake Turkana, Hyrax Hill and Njoro River cave. In Tanzania; - Olduvai Gorge, Eyasi Simila, Apis Rock and Garusi In Uganda; - Nsongezi, Napak, Magosi, Paraa, Ishanga, Mweya and Nyabusora In Ethiopia; - Omo River Valley and Hadar. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 16 Over a long period of time, man s ancestors lived in thick forests. Later about 15 million years ago, the forests transformed into savanna grasslands causing man s ancestors to change both physically and mentally so as to cope with the new environment. The changes a The tail which no longer had any value in the savanna disappeared. B Man became more upright as there were no more impeding vegetation as was the case of too much foliage and intertwining vegetation in the forests and also to reduce surface area onto which solar insolation had effect. These also enabled quicker movement. C The leg and foot formation changed to enable the weight of the body to be supported and balance to be achieved while moving or at a standstill. D Gradual use of front limbs hands for holding objects enabled man to make tools which made work easier. The limbs also found another role of protection from other predators. As the forests disappeared, competition for food intensified and humans had to change their earlier eating habits. Some fossil evidence clearly give distinctive evidence of the break-off point between apes and hominids mans ancestors. The changes which Homo sapiens underwent as a break-off from apes to modern man. A The skull size of the early human beings became larger indicating bigger brains. For example, Australopithecus, who lived between 5 and 1 million years ago, had a brain capacity of 530cm3.


Some fossil evidence clearly give distinctive evidence of the break-off point between apes and hominids mans ancestors. The changes which Homo sapiens underwent as a break-off from apes to modern man. A The skull size of the early human beings became larger indicating bigger brains. For example, Australopithecus, who lived between 5 and 1 million years ago, had a brain capacity of 530cm3. Homo erectus who lived later on had an improved brain capacity of between 775 and 1225cm3. B Their jaws and teeth became more powerful compared to earlier forms indicating their use in tearing and cutting tough fibres and even the need for defence as a weapon. The size of the jaws and teeth became smaller. C They developed a refined speech as compared to earlier forms. D They were taller with less hair on their body. E The forearms and hands underwent some changes. They developed a thumb for grasping objects. Their arms and hands became shorter, more appropriate for an upright posture. F Their leg and foot formation also changed. Their feet and toes were smaller than earlier hominids in order to support the weight of the rest of the body while motionless or mobile. The toes were no longer in need for holding onto branches. From apes to homo sapien sapiens Between 40 and 25 million years ago, the first apes appeared on earth. The first man Austropithecus appeared around 4.5 million years ago. The following are the stages through which the evolution of man passed. 1 Aegyptopithecus - An Early African Monkey Aegyptopithecus was reconstructed from a monkey like skull found at Fayum Depression in Egypt. He forms earliest evidence of probable man's ancestors. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 17 Its Teeth were those of a herbivore It had a Small, about 4kg and was named Egyptian ape. It was highly adapted to forest life. Had stereoscopic vision. It could jump skillfully from one tree to other using hands. It Dated 33 million years 2 Dryopithecus Africanus proconsul Its Remains were found at Rusinga Island within Lake Victoria by Mary and Louis Leakey in 1948.


Had stereoscopic vision. It could jump skillfully from one tree to other using hands. It Dated 33 million years 2 Dryopithecus Africanus proconsul Its Remains were found at Rusinga Island within Lake Victoria by Mary and Louis Leakey in 1948. Its Skull appearance was more close to modern man than to Aegyptopithecus. He had a quadrupedal movement like a chimpanzee. He had a Smooth forehead. He had long teeth like other animals. The shape of his teeth and jaws indicated that He ate fruits. It is his remains that strengthen the belief that east Africa was the first homeland of mankind. 3 Kenyapithecus Ramapithecus He is believed to have appeared between 15 and 12 million years ago First remains found Fort Ternan in Kericho District, Kenya, in 1961 by Dr. Louis Leakey and Mary. Other fossils found at Samburu Hills, near Lake Baringo as well as in the Lake Turkana basin. The equivalent species found in the Siwalikis Hills in northern India near New Delhi was named Ramapithecus He had small canines and could occasionally walk on twos without falling. The creature was small and weighed 36kg with bigger brains than earlier hominids. 4 Australopithecus southern ape By 4-2m years ago a series of species known as australopithecines begin to appear. Perhaps it was the earliest homid closer to modern man. The pelvis and leg were similar to that of modern humans. They were bipedal and this was important in defence, grasp of objects and vision of an impending danger from a distance. His Brain size was smaller than that of a human but larger than gorilla s. He was one of the most hairy hominid that ever existed. He was Short but strong with a low forehead. Had large teeth and skulls His remains were first discovered at Taung in Botswana by Raymond Dart in 1924. The broken up skull found in East Africa at Olduvai Gorge in 1959 by Mary Leakey, was called Zinjanthropus- Nut-Cracker man since it had big jaws that suggest it kept on chewing.


He was Short but strong with a low forehead. Had large teeth and skulls His remains were first discovered at Taung in Botswana by Raymond Dart in 1924. The broken up skull found in East Africa at Olduvai Gorge in 1959 by Mary Leakey, was called Zinjanthropus- Nut-Cracker man since it had big jaws that suggest it kept on chewing. Other fossils found in South Africa, Omo River Valley, Laetoli in Tanzania, near lakes Turkana and Baringo in kenya and L Natron Four types of Australopithecines that have been identified a Australopithecus Afarensis b Australopithecus Anamensis c Australopithecus africanus. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 18 d Australopithecus Robustus e Australopithecus Anamensis He is aged between 4.2 and 3.9 million years ago and is believed to be one of the oldest a Australopithecines Evidence of his existence is obtained from the Reconstruction of Material consisting of 9 fossils from Kanapoi in Kenya and 12 fossils from Allia Bay in Kenya found by Dr. Meave Leakey, Dr. Allan Walker and the four fossil hunters Kamoya Kimeu, Wambua Mangao, Nzube Mutiwa and Samuel Ngui. The fossil remains comprising a lower jaw were named A. Anamensis in August 1995 in a leading British Scientific journal. He had relatively large canines. The homid was aged between 3.9 and 3.0 million years ago. Its Name is derived from Afar Depression in Ethiopia. He Had Apelike face and human-like teeth. He was small in stature and Bipedal, but Walked bent over, not fully upright. They had very small brains -Brain capacity from 375 to 500 cc Its Brain was the size of an orange. They had a bony ridge over the eyes, a low forehead, a flat nose, and also they had no chin. Remains found at Laetoli in Tanzania and Tugen Hills in Baringo District. C Australopithecus Africanus A. Gracilis A.


He was about 127 cm 5'0" tall, and about 45 kg 100 lb in weight, although females may have been smaller His fossils were found in the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania in 1964 by Dr. J. Leakey. His Remains were also found at Hadar and Omo River Valley in Ethiopia and kobi fora along L. Turkana by Benerd Ngeneo in 1972. 6 Homo erectus Upright Man He was BIPEDAL- standing about 4-5 feet tall with a larger brain 700-1250cc . He lived between 2 million and 200,000 years ago. He was clever as illustrated by his ability to make Acheulian tools such as the hand axe which was used as an axe, knife or even as a scraper. He was the First hominid to invent and use fire. Their skeletons were larger and showed that they were quite heavily muscled They were omnivorous like many other early hominids. Only had hair on their head and back like are men that we have today Remains found in Hardar, Ethiopia where the skeleton of a female Lucy were found. Other fossils were found near Nariokotone River on the north western shores of LakeTurkana by Kamoya Kimeu in 1984. Also at Olorgesaillie near Magadi, Isimila near Iringa in TZ and Tenerife in Algeria. The most famous Homo Erectus fossil was found in a cave in Zhoukoudian, China and became known as Peking Man Java man 7 Homo sapiens Wise Man thinking man Their Main difference with their hominid ancestors is their extreme intelligence they were the smartest hominid that ever lived with a Brain capacity of 1000-1800cc They lived between 200,000 and 150,000 years ago They improved their way of life by making a variety of flint, bone, wood and stone tools Microliths They hunted, gathered and fished. Later on, they domesticated plants and animals Their Remains were found at Eliye Springs, Kanjera and Kanam in Kenya, Bodo and Omo River Valley in Ethiopia and Ngaloba in Tanzania.


Also at Olorgesaillie near Magadi, Isimila near Iringa in TZ and Tenerife in Algeria. The most famous Homo Erectus fossil was found in a cave in Zhoukoudian, China and became known as Peking Man Java man 7 Homo sapiens Wise Man thinking man Their Main difference with their hominid ancestors is their extreme intelligence they were the smartest hominid that ever lived with a Brain capacity of 1000-1800cc They lived between 200,000 and 150,000 years ago They improved their way of life by making a variety of flint, bone, wood and stone tools Microliths They hunted, gathered and fished. Later on, they domesticated plants and animals Their Remains were found at Eliye Springs, Kanjera and Kanam in Kenya, Bodo and Omo River Valley in Ethiopia and Ngaloba in Tanzania. Three sub-species of Homo sapiens existed; a Rhodesian man The sub-species Was discovered in Zambia , hence the name Rhodesian man For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 20 He had straight legs and walked with long strides. Rhodesian man s Brains and skull were very similar to those of modern man. B Neanderthals His Remains were found in Neander valley, Germany 1856 . They Lived in caves and valleys He was 5 feet and 5 inches tall-much stronger, heavily built and more aggressive too. He Had very thick eyebrow ridges like the other hominids He Made clothes from animal skins. They would scrape animal fat so they can use the skin as clothing. They were probably the First humans to bury their dead. He was most likely the most intelligent hominid other than modern humans. He was a nomad, gathering and hunting deer, wild pigs and wild sheep. Their weapons were used to impale animals; therefore, to kill them, they had to approach the animal and get very close. This was dangerous and probably caused injuries and even fatalities. Communication was key in hunting because they had to work as a team. They had the ability to use complex speech; however, their sentences were probably basic. Instead of painting on cave walls they painted their faces.


Wilmut Ian at the Roslin Institute of Edinburgh, Scotland that led to the first cloned sheep named dolly. Scientists are making attempts to even clone humans. More recent discoveries of early man include the Toumai found in Chad in 2002 dating about 6 to 7 myaIn 2000, another discovery was made in Baringo, Kenya millennium man and is believed todate 6mya. The discovery was made by Martin Pickford and Eustace Gitonga o the National Museums of Kenya. Appearance of races It has been hypothesized modern humans, using superior technology and more efficient adaption, out competed other hominid species to quickly emerge as the only surviving hominid species on the planet. Though we feature much diversity in appearance, these differences are minor compared to our biological similarities all human beings are quite closely related. Many of our physical differences skin, color, hair color, etc. Are relatively recent adaptations to local environment conditions. Evolutionary forces such as genetic drift have also played a role in our creating such variation as well. Biologists and anthropologists classified humans into three different groups based on physical characteristics. Negroids, found in Africa. Caucasians found in Europe Mongoloids found in Asia, Modern genetics has revealed that these categories make very little sense biologically since modern races are derived from a common stock and the different races are able to interbreed. There are also no differences in intelligence among all races of mankind. The term race has traditionally been used by scientists as the equivalent of the subspecies concept when classifying humans. The Cultural and economic practices of early man What is culture? Culture is the way of life of a people-Customs, language and social institutions The things that early humans made and used formed their material culture. Early man s culture can be understood through study of Stone Age or Paleolithic periods What is Stone Age? This refers to the early period of human history when man s tools and weapons were mainly made of stone and to some extend wood and bone There are three Stone Age periods 1 Old stone age- Paleolithic period- 4,500,000 to 50,000years 2 Middle stone age- Mesolithic period-50,000-15,000 years.


Culture is the way of life of a people-Customs, language and social institutions The things that early humans made and used formed their material culture. Early man s culture can be understood through study of Stone Age or Paleolithic periods What is Stone Age? This refers to the early period of human history when man s tools and weapons were mainly made of stone and to some extend wood and bone There are three Stone Age periods 1 Old stone age- Paleolithic period- 4,500,000 to 50,000years 2 Middle stone age- Mesolithic period-50,000-15,000 years. 3 New Stone Age Neolithic period- 15,000- 1,500 years The Paleolithic Age Paleolithic - Old Stone Age- 4,500,000 50,000 years ago For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 22 The Paleolithic is the longest of all stone ages, covering roughly 2 million years. The hominid species who lived side by side were Australopithecus, Homo habilis and Homoerectus. EARLY STONE AGE TOOLS The hominids Made tools from stone The Tool Traditions was called Oldowan tools pebble tools. The tools were named after Olduvai Gorge where they were found. They were made by Australopithecus and Homo erectus. They were also known as pebble tools because they were made of stones. Among the finds at Olduvai were the chopper, fist hatchet core tools and several flake tools. Such tools were also found at Kobi For a near Lake Turkana, Omo River Valley in Ethiopia, and Kafu Valley in Uganda, Shaba province in Zaire and in Algeria, Tunisia and morocco. In Kenya, the tools were found at sites in kariandusi, Olorgesaillie, Kilombe, Chesowanja, Mtongwe, Isenya and Lewa DownsAustralopithecus Southern Ape They didn t have the intelligence to make sophisticated tools, so they may have made tools out of bones that they foundAustralopithecus afarensis mostly used tools that they found or that nature had created, example was a stick, which they stuck into a termite mound, then the termites clung to it letting the ape pull out the stick covered in food.


They were made by Australopithecus and Homo erectus. They were also known as pebble tools because they were made of stones. Among the finds at Olduvai were the chopper, fist hatchet core tools and several flake tools. Such tools were also found at Kobi For a near Lake Turkana, Omo River Valley in Ethiopia, and Kafu Valley in Uganda, Shaba province in Zaire and in Algeria, Tunisia and morocco. In Kenya, the tools were found at sites in kariandusi, Olorgesaillie, Kilombe, Chesowanja, Mtongwe, Isenya and Lewa DownsAustralopithecus Southern Ape They didn t have the intelligence to make sophisticated tools, so they may have made tools out of bones that they foundAustralopithecus afarensis mostly used tools that they found or that nature had created, example was a stick, which they stuck into a termite mound, then the termites clung to it letting the ape pull out the stick covered in food. He is however also credited for making Oldowan tools. Homo habilis and the Oldowan Tradition They made stone tools for chopping, scraping, and cutting. Making of Choppers lower left involved knapping a few flakes off the core. Both cores and flakes were used. The Knapper could strike a spherical piece of stone until Flake falls off opposite side. The Tool would then be flipped over and procedure repeated. Several blows would create a cutting edgeRequirements reflect Intelligence, Planning, foreknowledge of design and Knowledge of breakage pattern of rock. There must also be Hand-eye coordination The second phase of the Old Stone Age was marked by tools called Acheulian tools, named after the site of St Acheul in France. Others found in Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. In Kenya, the tools were found at Kariandusi, Olorgesaillie, Kilombe, Chesowanja, Mtongwe, Isenya and Lewa DownsThey were made by Homoerectus. Homo erectus and the Acheulian tool technology. Signature tool: a welldesigned hand axe and cleavers The Hand axe had multiple uses, from cutting, skinning, scraping animal skins, digging and sharpening bone and wood.


In Kenya, the tools were found at Kariandusi, Olorgesaillie, Kilombe, Chesowanja, Mtongwe, Isenya and Lewa DownsThey were made by Homoerectus. Homo erectus and the Acheulian tool technology. Signature tool: a welldesigned hand axe and cleavers The Hand axe had multiple uses, from cutting, skinning, scraping animal skins, digging and sharpening bone and wood. Characteristics of Acheulian hand axe It was Bifacial: both sides were knapped Symmetrical in breadth Shaped to a point on one end The edge is thin and sharp Broad end is curved, but edge is still sharp. Process of Manufacturing Acheulian Hand axes For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 23 Dozens of flakes were removed from the core, from 25 to 75. Each flake blow must be precisely positioned. The Core must be turned over again and again to maintain symmetry and to keep edge straight. All the exterior rind cortex was removed. It was a demanding task-The hand axe was Symmetrical and finely shaped. OLD STONE AGE-HUNTING AND GATHERING The early Stone Age people lived in small groups and were able to hunt for food using sharpened rocks and sticks. They used simple hunting methods of chasing wild animals and throwing stones at them. They also made traps by digging large pits on the paths used by animals. They ate raw meat from small animals like lizards and rodents Women gathered edible fruits, eggs and roots- had a balanced diet. THE OLD STONE AGE-SHELTER AND CLOTHING Humans during this period found shelter in caves and tree-tops. Their bodies were hairy enough to keep them warm- lack of clothing was therefore bearable during this period. Moreover, the savannahs were also warm enough. They also preferred the grasslands because they provided them with the much needed water and foodThe Australopithecus had a very small brain and that limited the actions they could do. The Australopithecus were very hairy so they didn t need any clothes. Australopithecus diet was mostly made up of fruits and vegetables they found. If Australopithecus found a dead animal it would scavenge of it but the Australopithecus afarensis couldn t cook the meat and kill the germs.


The Australopithecus were very hairy so they didn t need any clothes. Australopithecus diet was mostly made up of fruits and vegetables they found. If Australopithecus found a dead animal it would scavenge of it but the Australopithecus afarensis couldn t cook the meat and kill the germs. Mesolithic age Mesolithic middle Stone Age- 200,000 10,000 years ago. They period was characterized by superior brains and ability of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens. Great improvements were witnessed. TOOLS Signature tool; Sangoan tool made using Lavallois method The tool was named after Sango Bay site on L. Victoria-Tz The Lavallois technology It involved using cores of smaller stones to hit bigger ones. The tool maker would draw outline of flake on stone module and Strike out flakes and blades of desired shape. The rock would be prepared beforehand to control how rock breaks when struck. The flakes and blades were then trimmed into a variety of knives, scrapers, spear points, choppers and daggers. Also Mousterian tools specialized stone tools and weapons were made. Tang- the first tool with a handle was invented in this period- 40,000 years ago in northern Africa. Fire was also another important tool invented by Homo erectus and he used it as follows For warmth at night, lighting, to cook roots and roast meat, for hunting bushfires , tool-making to harden tips, means of communication, food preservation It also enabled hominids to migrate out of savannah MESOLITHIC FOOD AND CLOTHES For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 24 Homo erectus was considered the first true hunters. Because of better tools Hand axe , fire and axes, they could hunt larger game such as deer, rhinos, pigs, elephants; buffaloes etc. And cook their food. People learnt to wear animal skins and make waist-belts and necklaces. They also painted themselves with red ochre and oil. MESOLITHIC SHELTER. Man used identifiable shelter. An example was found at Orangia in South Africa. Man also used rock shelter rocks scooped out to make hollows . Later man lived in caves with entrance covered with animal skins to keep wind and rain away e.g.


An example was found at Orangia in South Africa. Man also used rock shelter rocks scooped out to make hollows . Later man lived in caves with entrance covered with animal skins to keep wind and rain away e.g. Matupi Cave in Zaire and Gambles cave near Nakuru. MESOLITHIC LANGUAGE AND ROCK ART Families lived in small groups for security reasons. There were distinct languages to enhance communications. Rock paintings-Pictures of animals were painted on walls and rocks. Examples of Cave paintings were left behind at Kondoa and singida areas in north Tanzania and at Apollo II cave in S.A. This pictures signified man s believe in magic arrows piercing animals he hoped to kill SOCIAL ORGANIZATION There was efficient group organization as evidenced by the ability to carry out large-scale hunting. Language invention further strengthened the social bonds and cultures of early man The Neolithic age Neolithic New Stone Age- 15,000 4,000 years ago This period was marked with the Emergence of Homo sapiens and homo sapien sapiens. THE NEOLITHIC TOOLS Man became a Very skilled toolmaker-they made tools known as microliths- small piece of sharp stone tool . For example, a crescent or a lunate which had a straight sharp cutting edge and a curved blunted back. Their weapons include stone axes, knives, spears, harpoons, wooden bows, and sharp, stone tipped arrows, hooks, needles, and bone fish hooks. NEANDERTHALS were the first to create the pointed tip on hunting spears and harpoons THE NEOLITHIC SHELTER Earlier sapiens used caves as their homes instead of building one. Later, they made permanent homes that looked like tents or tepees, out of tree branches, grass, mammoth bones, and animal skins. They used or made some sort of paint to use on their cave paintings. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE Man domesticated plants and animals though he continued to hunt and gather. Man changed as from Nomadic lifestyle to settled stationary lifestyle; a.k.a.sedentary Population also increased due to balanced diet and adequate food For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 25 THE NEOLITHIC GOVERNMENT Due to settled life and improved settlement, rules and laws were set up as a basis of government.


They used or made some sort of paint to use on their cave paintings. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE Man domesticated plants and animals though he continued to hunt and gather. Man changed as from Nomadic lifestyle to settled stationary lifestyle; a.k.a.sedentary Population also increased due to balanced diet and adequate food For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 25 THE NEOLITHIC GOVERNMENT Due to settled life and improved settlement, rules and laws were set up as a basis of government. Some people also specialized in leadership, religious activities as well as making of crafts. THE NEOLITHIC RELIGION Man s language and religious beliefs developed as a result of depending on natural forces like rain. They began to ponder over issues like life and death. Evidence is found at Hyrax Hill and Njoro river Cave where human fossil remains were found buried with items such as tools and seeds or foodThe practice of burying someone with his possessions implied a belief in life after death. Neanderthals were the first to bury their dead. They also seemed to have a conception of an afterlife as shown by the actual burial site at La Ferrassie, France, with seven tombs including a man, a woman and several children s graves lying side by side. THE NEOLITHIC ART AND CRAFT Humans specialized in crafts such as basketry, pottery and later smelting Evidenced by this horse head carving to the right. DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE Definition of agriculture It is the cultivation of crops. The modern definition of agriculture includes animal husbandry, fish farming and bee-keeping. The beginning of Agriculture The domestication of plants and animals began over 10,000 years ago during the Neolithic period Why man domesticated plants and animals a. The increase of human population needed regular food supply -natural environment could no longer provide sufficient food. B. Climatic changes-increased drought, threatened plant life and animal life making natural food scarce. C. Competition for existing food in the natural resulted in inadequate wild food over hunting of animals. D. Hunting and gathering was increasingly becoming tiresome. E. Calamities such as forest fires or floods sometimes destroyed vegetation or drove wild animals away. F. Development of settled life. Man had to stop a life of movement in search of food and water. G. Development of tools microliths e.g.


Man had to stop a life of movement in search of food and water. G. Development of tools microliths e.g. sickles wooden plough, etc. H. Availability of varieties of indigenous crops e.g. wheat and barley. There are two theories that explain how agriculture started; 1. The Independent theory. Agriculture developed independently in different parts of the world especially along river valleys. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 26 2. One Place Theory Diffusion Theory-Crop growing and animal keeping developed among people of south East Asia. Then the idea spread to the rest of the world; Middle East, India, Central America, China, Southeast Asia 8,000 BC 7,000 BC 6,500 BC 6,000 BC 5,000 BC CROP GROWING The transformation from hunting and gathering to growing of food crops was a gradual development. The first crops were grown by man in areas where they existed naturally. Crop growing first developed in the Fertile Crescent which is in the Middle East. Neolithic women noticed new grain plants grew when they accidentally spilled grain seeds. They tried scattering seeds on purpose it worked! Animals often find plants in places with water good soil - Hunters saw pattern People stayed at sites, animals became tamer People started weeding irrigating so plants would grow better Started saving seeds of better plants to plant One season, nomads liked a site so much they stuck around Stayed so long they harvested a crop and then saw it grow to harvest stage again Groups learned to grow a crop from seed to harvest and then move on Since men did the hunting and females were responsible for the food gathering, women learned how to plant seeds, as well as process and prepare the food. The above facts point out that the beginning of crop farming was accidental and mainly through trial and errorEarliest crops to be domesticated were barley, wheat, sorghum, millet, rice, maize, yams, cassava, potatoes, bananas and grapes. Since they grew in different environments, there were many centres of agricultural revolution. For example; Middle East. Indus valley in India. Nile valley The yellow river valley in china The Danube Valley in Europe.


For example; Middle East. Indus valley in India. Nile valley The yellow river valley in china The Danube Valley in Europe. WHEAT Originally grown in south-west Asia Initial type was brittle wheat-then replaced by a non-brittle type in 7500BC called emmer Wheat then spread Mesopotamian plains by 6000 BC to Egypt by 3000BC, then to Mediterranean region, central Asia, India and southern Europe. BARLEY The first cereal to be domesticated. Initially grew wildly at Mureybat on the Euphrates in Syria between 7000 - 6000 BC Another evidence of growth found at Ali kosh Iran and Jericho Jordan Then spread to Egypt at Fayum in 4500 BC. Then spread to India and china by about 2000 BC. SORGHUM AND MILLET Originated from Africa at Hoggat in southern Algeria as early as 6000 BC For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke 27 Spread to West Africa to around Sudan area between Nile and Chad, by 1500 BC Finger millet originated in East Africa. Later the two spread to Asia and China. RICE Originated in Asia where currently is a stable food- in Thailand at about 3500 BC Then spread to India, Europe and Japan The African variety was grown along the upper Niger around 1500 BC MAIZE Origin- Central America at about 5000 BC at Tehuacan in Mexico. In Africa, was introduced by the Portuguese in 15thc. YAMS The first root and tuber crop to be domesticated- 9000 BC in south East Asia. The African variety, the white guinea yam was grown in Ivory Coast. DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS The Dog was the first animal to be domesticated. The next animals were the sheep, Goats, cattle and camels. Animal domestication Began through establishment of ties between man and animals during hunting or when fetching water. Dog Assisted humans in hunting, driving away dangerous animals and herding livestock Goats The Goat was first domesticated in south west Asia in5000 BC.Evidence of this is found at Tell Abu Hureyra, Tepe Ali Kosh, and Deh Luren Khuzestan in south -west Iran. Also in Iraq, upper Tigris valley, turkey and south Jordan.