Within no time, one could hardly be heard over the hubbub of talk and laughter. And as the pleasurable and lively celebration progressed, voices became animated; hands and arms gesticulated vigorously while heads turned more often. Eyes searched out acquaintances within the throng of revelers. And it was all pomp and gaiety as ivory adorned and bejeweled fingers fluttered; bare shoulders gleamed in the light multicoloured bead ornaments glittered upon elaborately bedecked necks: pendulous ilmiintoni of all colours dangled loosely down extended ear-lobes: and the bright colours of lesos, kangas, red shukas and multicoloured blankets, all turned the Ole Kaelo living room into a kaleidoscope of shifting light and colour.1.Place this extract in its immediate context. 4mks 2.State and explain two thematic concerns in this context. 4mks 3.What is the significance of the use of words like esuguroi, ilmiintoni, lesos, kangas, and shukas? 3mks 4.Identify and explain two character traits of ole Kaelo. 4mks 5.Eyes searched out acquaintances within the throng of revelers. Rewrite to form a question 1mk 6.Which other party has an equal weight from the rest of the novel. What is its significance? 3mks 7.Comment on the prevalent mood in the context. 2mks 8.Explain the meaning of the following words: 4mks a Hubbubb Gesticulatedc Gaietyd Dangled.


THE PEARLBy John SteinbeckThe Pearl: An OverviewThe Pearl is a novella by American author John Steinbeck, first published in 1947. It is the story of a pearl diver, Kino, and explores man's nature as well as greed, defiance of societal norms, and evil. Steinbeck's inspiration was a Mexican folk tale from La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mexico, which he had heard in a visit to the formerly pearl-rich region in 1940. In 1947, it was adapted into a Mexican film named La perla and in 1987 into a cult Kannada movie Ondu Muttina Kathe. The story is one of Steinbeck's most popular books and has been widely used in high school classes. SummaryThe Pearl, which takes place in La Paz, Mexico, begins with a description of the seemingly idyllic family life of Kino, his wife Juana and their infant son, Coyotito. Kino watches as Coyotito sleeps, but sees a scorpion crawl down the rope that holds the hanging box where Coyotito lies. Kino attempts to catch the scorpion, but Coyotito bumps the rope and the scorpion falls on him. Although Kino kills the scorpion, it still stings Coyotito. Juana and Kino, accompanied by their neighbors, go to see the local doctor, who refuses to treat Coyotito because Kino cannot pay. Kino and Juana leave the doctors and take Coyotito down near the sea, where Juana uses a seaweed poultice on Coyotito's shoulder, which is now swollen. Kino dives for oysters from his canoe, attempting to find pearls. He finds a very large oyster which, when Kino opens it, yields an immense pearl, which Kino therefore dubs "The Pearl of the World". Kino puts back his head and howls, causing the other pearl divers to look up and race toward Kino's canoe. The news that Kino has found an immense pearl travels fast through La Paz. The doctor who refused to treat Coyotito decides to visit Kino. Kino's neighbors begin to feel bitter toward him for his good fortune, but neither Kino nor Juana realizes this feeling they have engendered.


The news that Kino has found an immense pearl travels fast through La Paz. The doctor who refused to treat Coyotito decides to visit Kino. Kino's neighbors begin to feel bitter toward him for his good fortune, but neither Kino nor Juana realizes this feeling they have engendered. Juan Tomas, the brother of Kino, asks him what he will do with his money, and he envisions getting married to Juana in a church and dressing Coyotito in a yachting cap and sailor suit. He claims that he will send Coyotito to school and buy a rifle for himself. The local priest visits and tells Kino to remember to give thanks and to pray for guidance. The doctor also visits, and although Coyotito seems to be healing, the doctor insists that Coyotito still faces danger and treats him. Kino tells the doctor that he will pay him once he sells his pearl, and the doctor attempts to discern where the pearl is located Kino has buried it in the corner of his hut . That night, a thief attempts to break into Kino's hut, but Kino drives him away. Juana tells Kino that the pearl will destroy them, but Kino insists that the pearl is their one chance and that tomorrow they will sell it. Kino's neighbors wonder what they would do if they had found the pearl, and suggest giving it as a present to the Pope, buying Masses for the souls of his family, and distributing it among the poor of La Paz. Kino goes to sell his pearl, accompanied by his neighbors, but the pearl dealer only offers a thousand pesos when Kino believes that he deserves fifty thousand. Although other dealers inspect the pearl and give similar prices, Kino refuses their offer and decides to go to the capital to sell it there. That night, Kino is attacked by more thieves, and Juana once again reminds Kino that the pearl is evil. However, Kino vows that he will not be cheated, for he is a man. Later that night, Juana attempts to take the pearl and throw it into the ocean, but Kino finds her and beats her for doing so. While outside, a group of men accost Kino and knock the pearl from his hand. Juana watches from a distance, and sees Kino approach her, limping with another man whose throat Kino has slit.


Later that night, Juana attempts to take the pearl and throw it into the ocean, but Kino finds her and beats her for doing so. While outside, a group of men accost Kino and knock the pearl from his hand. Juana watches from a distance, and sees Kino approach her, limping with another man whose throat Kino has slit. Juana finds the pearl, and they decide that they must go away even if the murder was in self-defense. Kino finds that his canoe has been damaged and their house was torn up and the outside set afire. Kino and Juana stay with Juan Tomas and his wife, Apolonia, where they hide for the next day before setting out for the capital that night. Kino and Juana travel that night, and rest during the day. When Kino believes that he is being followed, the two hide and Kino sees several bighorn sheep trackers who pass by him. Kino and Juana escape into the mountains, where Juana and Coyotito hide in the cave while Kino, taking his clothes off so that no one will see his white clothing. The trackers think that they hear something when they hear Coyotito crying, but decide that it is merely a coyote pup. After a tracker shoots in the direction of the cries, Kino attacks the three trackers, killing all three of them. Kino can hear nothing but the cry of death, for he soon realizes that Coyotito is dead from that first shot. Juana and Kino return to La Paz. Kino carries a rifle stolen from the one of the trackers he killed, while Juana carries the dead Coyotito. The two approach the gulf, and Kino, who now sees the image of Coyotito with his head blown off in the pearl, throws it into the ocean. SettingSteinbeck began writing the story as a movie script in 1944, and first published it as a short story called "The Pearl of the World" in Woman's Home Companion in December 1945. The original publication is also sometimes listed as "The Pearl of La Paz". He expanded it to novella length and published it under the name The Pearl by Viking Press in 1947. As he was writing the novella version, he was frequently travelling to Mexico where the film version, co-written with Jack Wagner, was being filmed.


The original publication is also sometimes listed as "The Pearl of La Paz". He expanded it to novella length and published it under the name The Pearl by Viking Press in 1947. As he was writing the novella version, he was frequently travelling to Mexico where the film version, co-written with Jack Wagner, was being filmed. The film was also released by RKO in 1947 as a co-promotion with the book. The Pearl was loosely adapted in 2001 for a film directed by Alfredo Zacharias and starring Lukas Haas and Richard Harris which was released directly to video in 2005. The Pearl Character ListKinoA prototypical Mexican-Indian who works as a pearl diver, he begins the story as a devoted father and husband to Coyotito and Juana, respectively. Kino is the central character of the story, an everyman' who finds himself becoming increasingly violent, paranoid and defiant as he faces opposition from others after he finds the pearl, and resorts to assaulting Juana and murdering those who threaten him. JuanaThe mother of Coyotito and the wife of Kino, Juana is, as her name suggests, the representation of woman for Steinbeck in the story. She dutifully supports her husband, despite his worsening treatment of her, but warns him against the dangers that the pearl can bring to the family. Juana remains steadfast throughout the story and devoted to maintaining her family. She even refuses to obey Kino when he suggests that they take separate paths to avoid the trackers. CoyotitoThe infant son of Kino and Juana, after he is stung by a scorpion, the doctor refuses to treat him because his parents have no money. Although Juana seemingly cures him with a seaweed poultice, he receives treatment from the doctor only after Kino finds the pearl. When Kino and Juana are hunted by trackers after escaping La Paz, one of the trackers shoots Coyotito in the head as they hide in a cave. The DoctorA fat, complacent man who is not from the same race as Kino and Juana, he refuses to treat Coyotito for a scorpion sting when Kino and Juana cannot pay enough. However, once he learns that Kino has found the Pearl of the World, he treats the healed Coyotito after leading Kino and Juana to believe that Coyotito may suffer unseen consequences from the bite.


When Kino and Juana are hunted by trackers after escaping La Paz, one of the trackers shoots Coyotito in the head as they hide in a cave. The DoctorA fat, complacent man who is not from the same race as Kino and Juana, he refuses to treat Coyotito for a scorpion sting when Kino and Juana cannot pay enough. However, once he learns that Kino has found the Pearl of the World, he treats the healed Coyotito after leading Kino and Juana to believe that Coyotito may suffer unseen consequences from the bite. Seemingly interested in stealing the pearl, the doctor is not of the same race as Kino and Juana, and longs for his days in Paris. Juan TomasThe brother of Kino and the husband of Apolonia, he warns Kino against the disastrous consequences that he faces from finding the pearl. Juan Tomas hides Kino and Juana in his house after Kino murders a man in self-defense. ApoloniaThe fat wife of Juan Tomas, Apolonia allows Kino and Juana to hide in her house after Kino murders a man in self-defense. Book Summary and Analysis by ChaptersChapter 1Kino awakes and watches the hanging box where his infant son, Coyotito, sleeps. He then watches his wife, Juana, who has also awakened and rests peacefully. Kino thinks of the Song of the Family, a traditional song of his ancestors, as the dawn comes and Juana begins to prepare breakfast. Kino's ancestors had been great makers of songs, and everything they saw or thought had become a song. Juana sings softly to Coyotito part of the family song. Kino looks at them and thinks that "this is safety, this is warmth, this is the Whole. "Kino sees a movement near the hanging box where Coyotito sleeps. A scorpion moves slowly down the rope supporting the box. Kino thinks of the Song of Evil, the music of the enemy, as the Song of the Family cries plaintively. Kino stands still, ready to grasp the scorpion, but Coyotito shakes the rope and the scorpion falls on him. Kino reaches to catch it, but it falls onto the baby's shoulder and strikes. Kino grabs the scorpion and kills it as Coyotito screams in pain. Juana begins to suck the puncture to remove the poison.


Kino reaches to catch it, but it falls onto the baby's shoulder and strikes. Kino grabs the scorpion and kills it as Coyotito screams in pain. Juana begins to suck the puncture to remove the poison. Having heard the baby's screams, Kino's brother, Juan Tomas, and his fat wife Apolonia enter with their children. Juana orders them to find a doctor. The doctor never comes to their cluster of brush houses, so Juana decides to go to the doctor herself. The event becomes a neighborhood affair, for Juan Tomas and Apolonia accompany them and even the beggars in front of the church follow Juana as she marches toward the doctor. Kino feels weak as he approaches the doctor's home, for the doctor is not of his race and thus believes that Kino's people are simple animals. Kino tells the doctor's servant that his child was poisoned by a scorpion. The doctor is a fat man who longs for civilized living. Although the doctor is at home, he refuses to treat Coyotito unless he knows that he has money. The servant asks if Kino has money, and when he can only offer small seed pearls, the servant tells Kino that the doctor has gone out. Kino strikes the gate with his fist, splitting his knuckles. Chapter 1 AnalysisThe Pearl takes place among an impoverished Mexican-Indian community in La Paz. Although the story involves essentially only this couple, Steinbeck uses Kino and Juana as symbolic of the community in which they live. Steinbeck constructs Kino as an everyman with concerns typical of persons of all social stations. As shown by his encounter with the scorpion, Kino is a devoted father who dotes on his infant son and adores his wife. Quite importantly, as the story begins Kino is perfectly content with his situation, despite his lack of material possessions and difficult existence. As Kino watches his family, he believes that this is the "whole," the entirety of everything he really needs. This is significant, for this early contentment contrasts with the later panic that Kino and Juana will feel once they receive hope for a better future. Juana, whose name even translates into woman,' symbolizes a feminine ideal that complements Kino's masculine prototype.


The idea of community is also significant in terms of the various songs that Kino remembers. These songs are entirely symbolic, meant to place Kino in the larger, less personal context as a member of a community with a sense of heritage and to reinforce his status as an everyman. The two songs that Kino remembers during this chapter, the Song of the Family and the Song of Evil, also place the story in a context with diametric opposites; the story is largely a parable with defined parameters of good and evil. Steinbeck uses the doctor who refuses to treat Coyotito as a symbol of the forces of oppression that Kino and Juana face. The doctor represents the societal system that places a monetary value on human life, as well as the obstacles that Kino and Juana face. The racial divide between the doctor and Kino plays a considerable role in his refusal to treat Coyotito; although this aspect of the story is not omnipresent, this presents an additional element of adversity that Kino and Juana must endure. In this chapter, Steinbeck foreshadows eventual changes in Kino's character when he smashes his fist on the doctor's gate. This event shows that Kino reverts to violence and anger when confronted with adversity, yet when he does so he hurts only himself. Chapter 2Kino and Juana walk slowly down the beach to Kino's canoe, the one thing of value that he owns. The canoe is old, bought by Kino's grandfather, and is the source of food for Kino. It is their most important possession, for "a man with a boat can guarantee a woman that she will eat something.". Coyotito still suffers from the scorpion bite: the swelling on his shoulder continues up his neck and his face is puffed and feverish. Juana makes a poultice from brown seaweed. This poultice is "as good a remedy as any and probably better than the doctor could have done. "Kino and Juana get into the canoe so that Kino can find pearl oysters that may pay for the treatment for Coyotito. Kino dives for pearl oysters, where he thinks of the Song of the Pearl That Might Be and the Song of the Undersea. Kino works steadily under the water until he sees a large oyster lying by itself with its shell partly open, revealing what seems to be a massive pearl. Kino forces the oyster loose and holds it tightly against him.


Kino dives for pearl oysters, where he thinks of the Song of the Pearl That Might Be and the Song of the Undersea. Kino works steadily under the water until he sees a large oyster lying by itself with its shell partly open, revealing what seems to be a massive pearl. Kino forces the oyster loose and holds it tightly against him. When Kino comes up for air, Juana can sense his excitement. Kino opens the various oysters he had caught, leaving the largest one for last. He worries that the large pearl he saw was merely a reflection, for "in this Gulf of uncertain light there were more illusions than realities.". Finally, Kino opens the oyster to see a rich, perfectly curved pearl. Juana lifts the poultice of seaweed from Coyotito to see that the swelling has begun to recede. Kino puts back his head and howls, causing the men in other canoes to look up and race toward Kino's canoe. Chapter 2 AnalysisSteinbeck continues to detail the extreme poverty in which Kino and Juana live; not only can they not afford their own canoe so that Kino may perform his job as a pearl diver, they must use a canoe that is several generations old. This is important, for it gives greater weight to the discovery of the pearl, which could raise them from a meager existence into some sense of security. The canoe is a symbol of Kino's heritage, a relic passed down from his grandfather, but it also represents Kino's role as a provider for his family. Steinbeck generalizes the statement that a man with a canoe can ensure that his wife will never go hungry to illustrate Kino's status as an everyman and to emphasize the distinct roles and duties of a husband and father. The life that Kino and Juana lead is also an antiquated one; when the doctor refuses to treat Coyotito, Juana relies on primitive methods to cure her son. Steinbeck does not offer a sharp critique of these methods. Instead, he finds them more than adequate to the task and perhaps better than the treatment that the doctor might offer. In this novel, Steinbeck gives greater emphasis and value to traditional behaviors and even primitivism over modern conveniences and, in particular, those who have those luxuries. Kino's occupation as a pearl diver demonstrates the small chance that he and his family have for success.


Instead, he finds them more than adequate to the task and perhaps better than the treatment that the doctor might offer. In this novel, Steinbeck gives greater emphasis and value to traditional behaviors and even primitivism over modern conveniences and, in particular, those who have those luxuries. Kino's occupation as a pearl diver demonstrates the small chance that he and his family have for success. Pearl diving is a largely fruitless task that relies on the small chance for finding suitable oysters undersea and generally offers only the bare sustenance that maintains Juana and Kino. In effect, pearl diving is an act of desperation that further bolsters descriptions of Kino's poverty. It is the only hope that Kino and Juana have. Nevertheless, Kino immediately realizes that he has found an impressive pearl when he finds the oyster during his dive, leaving this large oyster as the final one to be opened. This creates a sense of tension and anticipation, as Kino realizes the significance of the pearl he has found. Steinbeck even bolsters the idea of fortuitous chance by juxtaposing the discovery of the pearl with Juana's realization that Coyotito has been cured, thus linking these two events, both of which provide great hope for Kino and Juana. However, even upon the discovery of the pearl Steinbeck foreshadows the later difficulties that might occur. Kino reverts to animalistic behavior once he finds the pearl, literally howling in joy. The pearl causes Kino to revert to instinctual behavior, a change that will have dangerous and disastrous consequences. Chapter 3The news of the pearl travels fast through Kino's small village. Before Kino and Juana return home, the news had already spread that Kino had found "The Pearl of the World," as it comes to be known. The local priest learns, as well as the doctor who refused to treat Coyotito. When the doctor learns, he tells the patient that he is treating that he must treat Coyotito for a scorpion sting. All manner of people grow interested in Kino, and the news stirs up something infinitely black and evil. The pearl buyers consider how they might deal with Kino and offer him the lowest possible price. However, Kino and Juana do not know the anger and bitterness they have engendered.


All manner of people grow interested in Kino, and the news stirs up something infinitely black and evil. The pearl buyers consider how they might deal with Kino and offer him the lowest possible price. However, Kino and Juana do not know the anger and bitterness they have engendered. Juan Tomas asks Kino what he will do now that he has become rich, and Kino answers that he and Juana will be married in the church. Kino envisions how he will be dressed, and sees Coyotito in a yachting cap and sailor suit from the United States. Kino then imagines buying a rifle. Thinking of the rifle breaks down barriers for Kino, as he imagines the whole lot of things that he might have. He thinks that Coyotito will go to school and learn to read. He claims that "my son will make numbers, and these things will make us free because he will know he will know and through him we will know. "The priest visits Kino and Juana, and tells them that he hopes that they will remember to give thanks and to pray for guidance. The doctor also visits, and although Kino tells him that Coyotito is nearly well, the doctor claims that the scorpion sting has a curious effect that comes later and if he is not treated he may suffer blindness or a withered leg. Not sure whether or not the doctor is telling the truth, Kino nevertheless lets him see the baby. The doctor takes a bottle of white powder and a gelatin capsule, and gives Coyotito a pill. The doctor tells them that the medicine may save the baby from pain, but he will come back in an hour to check on him. After the doctor leaves, Kino wraps the pearl in a rag and digs a hole in the dirt floor where he conceals the pearl. When the doctor returns, he gives Coyotito water with ammonia and tells Kino that the baby will get well now. Kino tells the doctor that he will pay him once he has sold his pearl. The neighbors tell the doctor that Kino has found the Pearl of the World and will be a rich man. The doctor suggests that Kino keep the pearl in his safe, but Kino says that he has it secure. The doctor realizes that Kino will likely look to the place where it is stored, and sees his eyes move to the corner where he had buried it.


The neighbors tell the doctor that Kino has found the Pearl of the World and will be a rich man. The doctor suggests that Kino keep the pearl in his safe, but Kino says that he has it secure. The doctor realizes that Kino will likely look to the place where it is stored, and sees his eyes move to the corner where he had buried it. After the doctor leaves again, Juana asks Kino whom he fears, and he answers everyone. 'That night, Kino thinks that he hears noises in his hut. He grabs his knife and strikes out in the dark. The person scurries out. Juana tells Kino that the pearl is evil and will destroy them. She tells him to throw it away or break it, for it will destroy them. Kino says that the pearl is their one chance, and that the next morning they will sell the pearl. Chapter 3 AnalysisAs the titular object of the novel, the pearl that Kino discovers can symbolize several different ideas or themes. In this chapter, Steinbeck equates the pearl with hope for the future, for it is the means by which Kino and Juana will be able to provide for Coyotito and give him a better life. The pearl also represents a sense of freedom by enabling Kino to educate Coyotito and give him the ability to choose his own profession and way of life apart from the deterministic poverty of his parents. Although the story takes place in Mexico, Steinbeck equates this with the American dream of fortune and prosperity; Kino imagines Coyotito dressed in clothes from the United States. The discovery of the pearl causes a sharp change in the villagers' reactions to Kino and Juana, for the once unimportant couple become renowned and notorious in La Paz. The pearl gives Kino great importance within La Paz, as demonstrated by the visit from the local priest and the doctor who had just recently refused treatment to Coyotito. However, with this newfound interest in Kino comes the impending feeling of hatred and hostility for him; the discovery causes an anonymous bitterness toward Kino for his great luck, a feeling that he and Juana cannot realize. The hostility directed toward Kino and Juana takes two forms; the first is a general jealousy from the community toward Kino for his luck, while the second is a more specific greed shown by those who wish the pearl for themselves. Steinbeck illustrates this avarice through both the priest and the doctor.


However, with this newfound interest in Kino comes the impending feeling of hatred and hostility for him; the discovery causes an anonymous bitterness toward Kino for his great luck, a feeling that he and Juana cannot realize. The hostility directed toward Kino and Juana takes two forms; the first is a general jealousy from the community toward Kino for his luck, while the second is a more specific greed shown by those who wish the pearl for themselves. Steinbeck illustrates this avarice through both the priest and the doctor. In the former case, the priest gives attention to Kino merely as a means to gain some of the money to the church, shamelessly asking Kino to monetarily compensate God for the good fortune he has received. In the latter, the doctor's newfound interest in Kino stems from a manipulative and dangerous greed. His visit to Kino reveals that he not only wishes to secure part of Kino's new fortune through the salary the doctor might receive for treatment but, as shown by the doctor's attempt to locate the pearl in Kino's hut, that he intends to steal the pearl. Steinbeck makes clear that the doctor does not visit Kino to cure his son; in fact, he indicates that the doctor's treatment of Coyotito might even be superfluous. The suspicious designs of both the doctor and the priest indicate that the danger that Kino faces is not from jealous neighbors who might use the pearl to escape their own poverty, but rather from those whose economic situation is secure and who merely desire greater luxury. Steinbeck thus uses the community reaction to the pearl as social commentary that critiques the ruling class for avarice and exploitation. The manipulative behavior of the doctor foreshadows greater calamities that Kino and Juana will suffer, which Steinbeck also shows through the anonymous thief who attempts to steal the pearl that night. However, Kino's and Juana's problems are not merely external forces, but are equally internal. Throughout the chapter, Kino and Juana evolve significantly. At first, neither can vocalize the changes that the pearl will make for them, but once they think of the tangible consequences for their newfound fortune they begin to articulate previously impossible and unimaginable dreams. However, Kino and Juana diverge in their later reactions to the pearl. Juana disavows the consequences of the fortune they will receive, finding the scorn and danger that others present to be an insurmountable evil.


At first, neither can vocalize the changes that the pearl will make for them, but once they think of the tangible consequences for their newfound fortune they begin to articulate previously impossible and unimaginable dreams. However, Kino and Juana diverge in their later reactions to the pearl. Juana disavows the consequences of the fortune they will receive, finding the scorn and danger that others present to be an insurmountable evil. Kino uses the animosity and danger as reason for suspicion and paranoia, as shown when Kino strikes randomly with his knife when he fears an intruder. He lapses into the instinctual animalism demonstrated in the previous chapter, a quality that will play a significant role in the tragedy to come. Steinbeck also foreshadows the trouble that Kino will find with the pearl buyers. In his description of the pearl buyers, Steinbeck claims that, although there are many of them, they are essentially one. This aligns with the idea of segments of the community as a collective that permeates The Pearl; as Steinbeck describes the town, it is like "a colonial animal" with its own emotion, essentially a person in itself. The neighbors who comment on the action are not individuals, but rather symbols of their class. Even Juana and Kino exist less as fully-formed individuals and as archetypal representations of man and woman. The pearl buyers, anonymous except for their identity as part of a class, symbolize the ruling elite of La Paz who can exploit Kino. Chapter 4In La Paz, the entire town knew that Kino was going to sell the pearl that day. Kino's neighbors speak of what they might do with the pearl. One man says that he would give it as a present to the Pope, while another said he would buy Masses for the souls of his family for a thousand years, while another thought he would distribute it among the poor of La Paz. Everyone worries that the pearl will destroy Kino and Juana. Before leaving to sell the pearl, Juan Tomas warns Kino and Juana to get the best price for the pearl, and tells him how their ancestors got an agent to sell their pearls, but this agent ran off with the pearls. Kino had heard the story told as a warning of punishment against those who try to leave their station. Kino and Juana, followed by neighbors, reach the offices of the pearl buyers.


Before leaving to sell the pearl, Juan Tomas warns Kino and Juana to get the best price for the pearl, and tells him how their ancestors got an agent to sell their pearls, but this agent ran off with the pearls. Kino had heard the story told as a warning of punishment against those who try to leave their station. Kino and Juana, followed by neighbors, reach the offices of the pearl buyers. The pearl dealer inspects the pearl and tells him that his pearl is like fool's gold, for it is too large and valuable only as a curiosity. Kino cries out that it is the Pearl of the World, and no one has ever seen such a pearl. The dealer offers a thousand pesos, to which Kino says that it is worth fifty thousand and the dealer wants to cheat him. The dealer tells Kino to ask the others around him. Kino can feel the evil around him as other dealers inspect the pearl. One dealer refuses the pearl altogether, while a second dealer offers five hundred pesos. Kino tells them that he will go to the capital. The dealer offers fifteen hundred pesos, but Kino leaves with the pearl. That night, the townspeople argue whether Kino should have accepted the money, which was still more than he would have ever seen. Kino buries the pearl again that night, and remains terrified at the world around him. Juan Tomas tell Kino that he has defied not only the pearl buyers, but the whole structure of life, and he fears for his brother. Juan Tomas warns him that he treads on new ground. Juan Tomas reminds Kino that his friends will protect him only if they are not in danger, and tells him "Go with God" before he departs. In the middle of the night, Kino feels a sense of evil from outside of his brush house, and he prepares to wield his knife. Kino steps outside to see if there are prowlers. Juana can hear noise from outside, so she picks up a stone and steps out of their hut. She finds Kino with blood running down his scalp and a long cut in his cheek from ear to chin. Juana once again tells Kino that the pearl is evil and they must destroy it. Kino insists that he will not be cheated, for he is a man.


She finds Kino with blood running down his scalp and a long cut in his cheek from ear to chin. Juana once again tells Kino that the pearl is evil and they must destroy it. Kino insists that he will not be cheated, for he is a man. Chapter 4 Analysis:Steinbeck begins the chapter with the reactions of the people of La Paz, who propose what they might do if they were to find a pearl of such great value. Their reactions reveal a sense of animosity toward Kino, for the great plans for charity that these people suggest contrast with the seemingly self-interested ideas that Kino proposed in the previous chapter. This is important to show the undercurrent of criticism for Kino. Steinbeck suggests the jealousy that people have for his good fortune. Additionally, the idealistic and charitable ideas that people propose reveal a simplistic attitude toward receiving such a great fortune; as Steinbeck has shown and will continue to show, Kino and Juana do not face easy decisions with regard to their newfound fortune, and in fact may be in serious danger. The pearl dealer, who symbolizes the ruling elite classes, proves to be another example of a manipulative professional man akin to the priest and the doctor. He shamelessly attempts to cheat Kino out of his money, offering a price that seems far too low for such a pearl; although there remains the possibility that the pearl may be an oddity with little practical value, the numerous attempts to steal the pearl, perhaps instigated by the pearl dealers, suggest otherwise. Kino's refusal is no small feat; as Juan Tomas declares, he has defied the structure of life around him. This places the parable in a larger political context, suggesting that a hierarchy around Kino works to exploit him and others of his station and resists any attempts to shift this social order. This idea is bolstered by the story concerning the pearl agent in which punishment is inflicted upon those who attempt to secure a better station for themselves. However, although Kino repudiates the idea that punishment should be inflicted on those who reach for higher social status, Steinbeck has conflicting ideas concerning this idea. Although Steinbeck is quite sympathetic to Kino and Juana, casting them as the protagonists of the story in comparison to the greedy, manipulative and one-dimensional villains such as the doctor and the pearl buyers, the very structure of the story seems to suggest that Kino and Juana will pay a great price for their aspirations.


This idea is bolstered by the story concerning the pearl agent in which punishment is inflicted upon those who attempt to secure a better station for themselves. However, although Kino repudiates the idea that punishment should be inflicted on those who reach for higher social status, Steinbeck has conflicting ideas concerning this idea. Although Steinbeck is quite sympathetic to Kino and Juana, casting them as the protagonists of the story in comparison to the greedy, manipulative and one-dimensional villains such as the doctor and the pearl buyers, the very structure of the story seems to suggest that Kino and Juana will pay a great price for their aspirations. For finding the pearl and attempting to sell it, Kino and Juana are physically threatened, suffer a silent condemnation from their neighbors, and are besieged by opportunists, while they were content in their poverty, a situation which Kino thought was "the whole. "Steinbeck continues to demonstrate that the pearl has more detrimental consequences for Kino and Juana than benefits. Only two days after having found the pearl, Kino has suffered two robbery attempts and has been assaulted once. These threats against Kino strengthen his resolve, however, causing him to obstinately fight for the pearl and revert to brutal behavior. The attacks against Kino are an affront to his masculinity, as shown by his constant avowal that he is a man and thus cannot be cheated. This helps to illustrate the definition of masculinity that Steinbeck deals with throughout The Pearl. While earlier the idea of masculinity meant providing for one's family, for Kino it now encompasses receiving just and respectful treatment. Juana serves as the lone voice of reason, continuing to warn Kino of the disastrous consequences of the pearl. As Kino becomes more and more consumed by his paranoia and impulses, it is Juana who remains maintains a realistic appraisal of the effects of the pearl. For Juana, the pearl represents a great evil and suffering, a sharp change from the sense of hope and freedom that it originally symbolized. The irony of this situation is notable: the pearl that would secure prosperity and stability for Kino and Juana instead offers them only pain and danger. Chapter 5Kino senses movement near him, but it is only Juana who arises silently from beside him. Kino sees her near the hanging box where Coyotito lay, and then watches her go out the doorway.


The irony of this situation is notable: the pearl that would secure prosperity and stability for Kino and Juana instead offers them only pain and danger. Chapter 5Kino senses movement near him, but it is only Juana who arises silently from beside him. Kino sees her near the hanging box where Coyotito lay, and then watches her go out the doorway. Kino begins to feel a great sense of rage as he hears her footsteps going toward the shore; Juana is going to throw the pearl back into the ocean. Kino chases Juana, then strikes her in the face with his clenched fist and kicks her in the side. He then turns away from her and walks up the beach. Juana knows that when Kino said that he is a man, he meant that he was "half-insane and half-god" and knows as a woman that "the mountain would stand while the man broke himself; that the sea would surge while the man drowned in it. "While walking on the beach, men accost Kino in search of the pearl, which is knocked from his hand and lands on the pathway. Juana soon sees Kino limping toward her with a stranger whose throat has been slit. She finds the pearl for Kino, and tells him that they must go away before daylight. Kino says that he struck to save his life, but Juana says that this does not matter. He orders her to get Coyotito and all of the corn they have. Kino finds his canoe with a splintered hole in the bottom. He rushes home to find Juana and Coyotito, but Juana tells Kino that their house was torn up and the floor dug, and someone set fire to the outside. Juana and Coyotito go to Juan Tomas and Apolonia. When Kino tells about the man he has killed, Juan Tomas says that it is the pearl and he should have sold it. Kino begs his brother to hide them until nightfall. Kino tells Juan Tomas that he will head north. Kino says that he will not give up the pearl, because "if I give it up I shall lose my soul. "Chapter 5 AnalysisSteinbeck builds a sense of paranoia and imminent tragedy for Juana and Kino during this chapter, in which anonymous enemies threaten their safety.


Kino begs his brother to hide them until nightfall. Kino tells Juan Tomas that he will head north. Kino says that he will not give up the pearl, because "if I give it up I shall lose my soul. "Chapter 5 AnalysisSteinbeck builds a sense of paranoia and imminent tragedy for Juana and Kino during this chapter, in which anonymous enemies threaten their safety. The men who attack Kino are never named and their origins are never revealed; although Kino suspects that they are the agents of the pearl dealers. This anonymity is significant, for the men who assault Kino symbolize a more generalized evil' than the specific villainy of the pearl dealer or the doctor. This continues the string of various calamities that occur to Juana and Kino; they lose their boat and their home while defending themselves. These two losses are significant, for the canoe symbolizes the ability that Kino has to provide for and protect his family and the home symbolizes the idea of the family that once gave Kino great comfort. By this point in the story, Juan Tomas joins Juana in warning Kino of the problems of the pearl, but Juana's predictions of disaster have already been partially fulfilled. When Juan Tomas tells Kino "go with God" when Kino prepares to venture to the capital, this statement has a sense of impending doom; Steinbeck makes it very clear that a tragic end for Kino and Juana is imminent. Steinbeck also makes the explicit point that the greatest damage caused by the pearl is the change that it effects within Kino. The caring father and partner of the first chapter at this point in the story attacks Juana when she attempts to take the pearl. Juana realizes the change in her husband from a normal man to one with a questionable grip on sanity. It is ironic that, when Kino declares that he is a man, he begins to act "half insane and half god," thus negating the qualities that define him as a man. Steinbeck creates a tone of futility about Kino's enterprise; as the rational and level-headed Juana realizes, Kino is a man raging against an obstacle as insurmountable as a mountain or a storm, and his struggles will only cause him to destroy himself. Kino even finds himself capable of murder to defend himself; whether Kino is capable of a more cold-blooded killing still remains questionable.


It is ironic that, when Kino declares that he is a man, he begins to act "half insane and half god," thus negating the qualities that define him as a man. Steinbeck creates a tone of futility about Kino's enterprise; as the rational and level-headed Juana realizes, Kino is a man raging against an obstacle as insurmountable as a mountain or a storm, and his struggles will only cause him to destroy himself. Kino even finds himself capable of murder to defend himself; whether Kino is capable of a more cold-blooded killing still remains questionable. Kino's comment that the pearl has become his soul is the defining statement of his condition. It shows that Kino has ceased to be in some level human; he cannot consider normal human needs and emotions, but defiantly focuses on the pearl. The reaction of the community to the tragedies that occur to Kino and Juana is significant. While the neighbors followed every detail of Kino's life once the pearl promised to bring him fortune and renown, during this time his neighbors remain silent. Only Juan Tomas and Apolonia hide Juana and Kino but do so reluctantly. While Kino's neighbors have commented on all of the events in previous chapters, they do not manifest any reaction to the attacks on Kino and Juana. Chapter 6As Kino and Juana travel northward, Kino feels a sense of exhilaration along with his fear. They walk all night and rest during the day so that they may not be found, and attempt to cover their tracks so that they cannot be followed easily. Kino warns Juana that "whoever finds us will take the pearl," but Juana wonders whether the dealers were right and the pearl has no value. Kino says that they would not have tried to steal it if it were not valuable. Kino repeats what they will have once they sell the pearl: the church wedding, the rifle, education for Coyotito. When they stop to rest during the day, Juana does not sleep and Kino stirs as he dreams. When they hear noises from the distance, Kino orders Juana to keep Coyotito quiet. While Juana hides, Kino moves through the brush to see what he heard, and notices in the distance three bighorn sheep trackers, one of whom is on horseback. Kino realizes that if the trackers find them, he must leap for the horseman, kill him and take his rifle.


When they hear noises from the distance, Kino orders Juana to keep Coyotito quiet. While Juana hides, Kino moves through the brush to see what he heard, and notices in the distance three bighorn sheep trackers, one of whom is on horseback. Kino realizes that if the trackers find them, he must leap for the horseman, kill him and take his rifle. As the horseman passes by Kino, he does not notice him. Kino and Juana both realize that if the trackers find them, they will kill them to get the pearl. Kino and Juana escape into the mountains, not bothering to cover their tracks. Kino orders Juana and Coyotito to leave him, for he can go faster alone, but she staunchly refuses. Kino and Juana take a zigzag path in order to thwart the trackers, and eventually find a small stream and the entrance to a cave. Kino tells Juana to hide in the cave, and he fears that Coyotito will cry, alerting the trackers. While hiding in the cave, Kino finds that the trackers are by the stream. So that he will not be seen, Kino takes off his white clothing and stealthily creeps near them as they rest. The trackers can hear Coyotito, but think that it is merely a coyote pup. As the tracker prepares to shoot what he thinks is a coyote, Kino approaches the trackers and pounces on them. He grabs one of the trackers' rifle and shoots him between the eyes, and stabs another with his knife. The third tracker escapes up the cliff toward the cave, but Kino shoots him. Kino stands silently and hears nothing but the cry of death. Coyotito has been shot. Kino and Juana arrive back in La Paz; he carries a gun while she carries her shawl with a limp, heavy bundle. Their return to La Paz becomes a notable event: "there may e some old ones who saw it, but those whose fathers and whose grandfathers told it to them remember it nevertheless. It is an event that happened to everyone.". Juana appears hardened and tight with fatigue. Kino thinks of the Song of the Family, which has become his battle cry. As they return to La Paz, nobody speaks to them and even Juan Tomas cannot bear to say a word.


It is an event that happened to everyone.". Juana appears hardened and tight with fatigue. Kino thinks of the Song of the Family, which has become his battle cry. As they return to La Paz, nobody speaks to them and even Juan Tomas cannot bear to say a word. Kino and Juana approach the gulf, and in the surface of the pearl Kino remembers seeing Coyotito lying in the cave with his head shot away. Kino throws the pearl into the ocean. Chapter 6 AnalysisThe final chapter focuses primarily on the hunt for Kino and Juana as they try to escape La Paz and reach the capital so that they can sell the pearl. Steinbeck creates the sense that Kino and Juana are followed at all times. Pursued by bighorn sheep trackers, Juana and Kino are literally hunted like animals. The division between man and animal is an important motif throughout this chapter. It primarily relates to Kino's descent from those human qualities he once displayed. Steinbeck illustrates this through a number of events, such as when Kino attacks the trackers. In this instance, Kino moves from being capable of murder for self-defense to a more cold-blooded killing. Kino kills the three men out of fear and instinct and not because of any tangible threat they pose to him. Steinbeck also shows the loss of human qualities within Kino when he crawls naked to find the trackers so that his white clothes will not expose him. He loses the final vestiges of humanity and society to become even more animalistic. This descent is particularly ironic when considering the death of Coyotito. Kino behaves as an animal so that he can protect himself and his family, but Coyotito dies when the child is mistaken for a coyote pup. Coyotito plays a significant role in this chapter as a reminder of the serene domestic environment that Kino and Juana once had and as a danger for them. In the savage wilderness where Kino and Juana find themselves, Coyotito serves as their one reminder of society and civilization. Coyotito also represents the hope that Kino and Juana have for the future; it is the infant child who will benefit most from the pearl, according to his parents' plans, and he thus symbolizes the advantages that the pearl may bring.. Once again, Steinbeck keeps the adversaries who pursue Kino and Juana anonymous in order to preserve their symbolic connotations.


In the savage wilderness where Kino and Juana find themselves, Coyotito serves as their one reminder of society and civilization. Coyotito also represents the hope that Kino and Juana have for the future; it is the infant child who will benefit most from the pearl, according to his parents' plans, and he thus symbolizes the advantages that the pearl may bring.. Once again, Steinbeck keeps the adversaries who pursue Kino and Juana anonymous in order to preserve their symbolic connotations. The bighorn sheep trackers may not even be pursuing Kino and Juana; they are more important for how Kino and Juana perceive them than their actual personalities. Whether or not they are actually a threat, Kino is so assured that they are dangerous that he murders them before they have a chance to strike. In contrast to the savage and brutal Kino, Juana becomes stronger through the suffering she faces. She reveals herself to be dedicated to her husband even at the most dire moments, demanding that he not break up their family despite the practical advantages. Furthermore, it is Juana who remains awake at night, guarding Kino and Coyotito as Kino sleeps. Steinbeck juxtaposes Kino with Juana; while the man becomes more instinctual and animalistic, the woman retains her particularly human qualities. While Kino becomes suspicious and paranoid, when he looks "for weakness in her face, for fear or irresolution . . . There is none. "The return of Kino and Juana to La Paz is anticlimactic, yet contains some degree of ironic horror. Kino returns to La Paz with the one possession that he desperately wanted, a rifle, but has lost his child and rejects the pearl. His rejection of the pearl fully demonstrates the horror that the pearl has wrought upon him. Steinbeck constructs Kino's return to La Paz as an event that brings Kino back to the family-centered ideals with which he began the story, but his recollection of the Song of the Family has a significant undercurrent of defiance and anger. His family has been destroyed, yet he clings to that ideal, for it is all that remains for him. The Pearl is therefore a parable with an uncertain meaning at best and a morbidly determinist one at worst. The story does seem to warn against attempting to improve one's social situation, recalling Juan Tomas' story of the pearl agent who stole the townspeople's pearls.


His family has been destroyed, yet he clings to that ideal, for it is all that remains for him. The Pearl is therefore a parable with an uncertain meaning at best and a morbidly determinist one at worst. The story does seem to warn against attempting to improve one's social situation, recalling Juan Tomas' story of the pearl agent who stole the townspeople's pearls. Although it seems to indict Kino for his attempts to gain the fortune that the pearl offers, it offers equal if not greater censure to the elites of La Paz who attempt to exploit Kino and thwart his attempts to sell the pearl. Even if Steinbeck does not intend the story to be a critique of Kino for his behavior, the story has a decidedly deterministic viewpoint that implies that Kino and Juana could do nothing to improve their situation. Perhaps the most valid critique that Steinbeck offers in the pearl concerns the effects that the newfound chance for riches has on Kino, who replaces human, civilized values with an obsessive preoccupation with the pearl and suspicion of those around him. Steinbeck criticizes the idea that the pearl has become Kino's soul, demonstrating that there are far greater losses that Kino can face. Yet where the story remains problematic is that the hope that the pearl brings is never tangible; calamities occur nearly immediately for Juana and Kino, making the pearl into a simple curse for the family. Kino does not choose to sacrifice his fortune; he chooses to repudiate his pain. When Kino throws the pearl into the ocean, he discards a meaningless object. The pearl has no value in the sense that, without Coyotito, the pearl has no power to provide for a better future for Kino and Juana, who could gain only simple material items from their fortune. Kino's repudiation of the pearl is an empty event, for he does not make a meaningful sacrifice. He instead rids himself of an unwanted object that causes him pain. As a parable, The Pearl is an empty one, merely choosing to heap tragedy upon its protagonists and forcing them into pain and agony without offering them an alternate option or any possibility for hope.


AGRICULTURE FORM II NOTES9.0.0 Soil Fertility II Inorganic Fertilizers 12 Lessons 10.0.0 Crop Production II Planting 16 Lessons 11.0.0 Crop Production III Nursery Practices 16 Lessons 12.0.0 Crop Production IV Field Practices 14 Lessons 13.0.0 Crop Production V Vegetables 16 Lessons 14.0.0 Livestock Health I Introduction 16 Lessons 15.0.0 Livestock Health II Parasites 16 Lessons 16.0.0 Livestock Production II Nutrition 12 Lessons Soil Fertility II Inorganic Fertilizers IntroductionPlant nutrients occur in the soil in form of soluble substances. These substances are taken in by the plants in different quantities depending on their roles in the plant tissues. Essential ElementsThese are nutrients needed by plants for various uses. They are divided into two broad categories namely:Macronutrientsmicronutrients. Macro-nutrientsThese are also referred to as major nutrients. They are required by the plant in large quantities. They include;carbon,hydrogen,oxygen,nitrogen,phophorus,potassium,sulphur,calciummagnesium. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are referred to as fertilizer elements,Calcium, magnesium and sulphur, are referred to as liming elements. Role of Macronutrients in PlantsNitrogen NO3,NH4 Sources:Artificial fertilizersOrganic matterAtmospheric fixation by lightningNitrogen fixing bacteria. Role of Nitrogen in PlantsVegetative growthChlorophyll formationBuild up of protoplasm. Improves leaf quality in leafy crops such as tea and cabbages. Deficiency SymptomsYellowing of the leaves chlorosis. Stunted growth. Premature ripening. Premature shedding of the leaves. Light seeds. Effect of Excess NitrogenScorching of the leaves. Delayed maturity. Loss of Nitrogen From the Soil:Soil erosion. Leaching. Volatilization. Crop removal. Used by microorganisms.


Volatilization. Crop removal. Used by microorganisms. Phosphorus H2 P04, HPO2-4 P2O5 Sources:Organic manuresCommercial fertilizersPhosphate rocksRole of PhosphorusEncourages fast growth of the roots. Improves the quality of the plant. Hastens maturity of the crops. Influences cell division. Stimulates nodule formation in legumes. Deficiency symptomsGrowth of the plant is slow. Maturity is delayed. Leaves become grey, purple in colour. Yield of grains, fruits and seed is lowered. Loss of Phosphorus From the SoilSoil erosion. LeachingCrop removalFixation by iron and aluminium oxide. Potasium K , K2O Sources;Crop residue and organic manures. Commercial fertilizersPotassium bearing minerals e.g. feldspar and mica. Role of Potassium in PlantsIncreases plant vigour and disease resistance. Increases the size of grains and seeds. Reduces the ill-effects due to excess nitrogen. Prevents too rapid maturation due to phosphorus. Deficiency SymptomsPlants have short joints and poor growth. Plants lodge before maturing. Leaves develop a burnt appearance on the margin. Leaves at the lower end of the plant become mottled, spotted or streaked. In maize, grains and grasses firing starts at the tip of the leaf and proceeds from the edge usually leaving the midrib green. Loss of Potassium From the SoilCrop removal. Leaching. Soil erosion. Fixation in the soil. Calcium Ca2 Source:Crop residues and organic manures. Commercial fertilizers. Weathering of soil minerals. Agricultural limes for example dolomite, limestone. Role of Calcium in PlantsImproves the vigour and stiffness of straw. Neutralizes the poisonous secretions of the plants. Helps in grain and seed formation. Improves the soil structure. Promotes bacterial activity in the soil. Corrects the soil acidity. Deficiency symptomsYoung leaves remain closed. There are light green bands along the margins of the leaves. Leaves in the terminal bud become hooked in appearance there is a die-back at the tip and along the margins.


Deficiency symptomsYoung leaves remain closed. There are light green bands along the margins of the leaves. Leaves in the terminal bud become hooked in appearance there is a die-back at the tip and along the margins. Loss of CalciumCrop removalLeachingSoil erosionMagnesium Mg2 Sources:Crop residues and organic manuresCommercial fertilizersWeathering of soil minerals. Agricultural limes. Role of Magnesium in PlantsForms part of chlorophyll. Promotes the growth of the soil bacteria and enhances the nitrogen fixing power of the legumes. Activates the production and transport of carbohydrates and proteins in the growing plant. Deficiency symptomsLoss in green colour which starts from the bottom leaves and gradually moves upwards. The veins remain green. Leaves curve upwards along the margins. Stalks become weak and the plant develops long branched roots. The leaves become streaked. S04 2- ,SO2 Sources:Commercial fertilizers. Soil mineral containing sulphidesAtmospheric sulphur from industries. Rain waterRole of Sulphur in PlantsFormation and activation of coenzyme-A. Sulphur is a constituent of amino acids. Influence plant physiological processes. Deficiency SymptomsSmall plants stunted growth. Poor nodulation in legumes. Light green to yellowish leaves chlorosis. Delayed maturity. Micro-nutrientsAlso referred to as trace or minor nutrients. They are required in small quantities traces. They are essential for proper growth and development of plants. They include;Iron,Manganese,Copper,Boron,MolybdenumChlorine. Role of Micronutrients and Their Deficiency SymptomsCopperRole in oxidation-reduction reactions. Respiration and utilization of ironDeficiency symptoms-yellowing of young leaves. IronSynthesis of proteins. Takes part in oxidation-reduction reactions. Deficiency symptoms - leaf chlorosisMolybdenumNitrogen transformation in plants. Metabolization of nitrates to amino acids and proteinsDeficiency symptoms -leaf curl and scathing. Manganese - Same as molybdenum. ZincFormation of growth hormone. Reproduction processDeficiency symptoms - white bud formation. Boron Absorption of water. Translocation of sugarInorganic FertilizersThese are chemically produced substances added to the soil to improve fertility.


Reproduction processDeficiency symptoms - white bud formation. Boron Absorption of water. Translocation of sugarInorganic FertilizersThese are chemically produced substances added to the soil to improve fertility. Classification According to:Nutrients containedStraight - contain only one macronutrient. Compound fertilizers - contain more than one macronutrientTime of applicationSome applied when planting. Top dressing after crop emergenceEffects on the soil pH. Acidic fertilizers. Neutral fertilizers. Basic fertilizers. Properties and Identification of FertilizersNitrogenous FertilizersCharacteristicsHighly soluble in water. Highly mobile in the soil hence it is applied as a top dress. Easily leached because of the high solubility hence does not have residual effect on the soil. Has scorching effect on young crops during wet seasons. Easy to volatilize during hot season. They have a tendency to cake under moist conditions. They are hygroscopic hence should be stored in dry conditions. Examples:Sulphate of Ammonia NH4 2 SO4 Physical appearance:white crystals,Has acidic effect,Contains 20 N. Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate NH4 2 SO4 NH4 NO3 Colour: granules which appear yellow orange,less acidic,contains 26 N. Calcium Ammonium Nitrate CAN Colour: greyish granules,neutral in nature,contains 21 N. UreaColour: small whitish granulesEasily leached or volatilized,contains 45- 46 N. Phosphate FertilizersHas low solubility and immobile. Non-scorching. Has a high residual effect hence benefit the next season's crop. Easy to store because they are not hygroscopic. Examples;Single super-phosphateAppearance: whitish, creamy white granules,contains 20-21 P2O5Double super-phosphateAppearance: dark greyish granules,Contains 40-42 P2O5Triple super-phosphateAppearance: small greyish granules,Contain 44-48 P2O5Potassic FertilizersCharacteristics:Has moderate scorching effect. Moderately soluble in water. Most Kenyan soils have sufficient potassium.


Examples;Single super-phosphateAppearance: whitish, creamy white granules,contains 20-21 P2O5Double super-phosphateAppearance: dark greyish granules,Contains 40-42 P2O5Triple super-phosphateAppearance: small greyish granules,Contain 44-48 P2O5Potassic FertilizersCharacteristics:Has moderate scorching effect. Moderately soluble in water. Most Kenyan soils have sufficient potassium. Examples;Muriate of Potash KCl Contain 60 - 62 K2OSlightly hygroscopic. Appearance amorphous white. Sulphate of Potash 50 K2O Compound or Mixed FertilizersThese are fertilizers which supply 2 or more of the macronutrients. Examples;Mono ammonium phosphate. Di-ammonium phosphate20:20:20, 23:23:23Advantages of application of compound fertilizersSaves time and money. Mixture gives improved storage properties and better handling. Disadvantages of compound fertilizers applicationExpensive. Wasteful. Mixing may not be thorough. Incompatibility of the individual fertilizers. Methods of fertilizer applicationBroadcasting - random scattering of the fertilizers on the ground. Placement method - application of fertilizers in the planting holes. Side dressing - fertilizer is placed at the side of the plant within the root zone, in bands or spot-rings. Foliar spraying - specially formulated fertilizer solution applied on the foliage in spray form. Drip method - applied through irrigation water. Determination of Fertilizer RatesContents of fertilizers are expressed as fertilizer grade or fertilizer analysis. Fertilizer grade indicate the guaranteed minimum of the active ingredients N, P2O5, K 2O in the mixture. It is expressed as a percentage on a weight to weight basis or percentage by weighExample 10:20:0 means for every 10kg of the mixture there are 10kg of nitrogen, 20kg of P2O 5 and 0kg of K2O. ExampleA farmer was asked to apply fertilizers as follows:60 kg ha nitrogen top dressing 60 kg ha P2O5 in planting hole . 60 kg ha K2O. How much sulphate of ammonia 20 would be required per hectare?


ExampleA farmer was asked to apply fertilizers as follows:60 kg ha nitrogen top dressing 60 kg ha P2O5 in planting hole . 60 kg ha K2O. How much sulphate of ammonia 20 would be required per hectare? How much double super-phosphate 40 P2O5would be required per hectare? How much muriate of potash 50 K2O would be required per hectare? Answer SolutionSulphate of ammonia SA which gives 60kg ha N 6020x 100 300kg SADouble super phosphate 40 P2O5 which gives 60kg ha P2O560 40x 100 150kg DSPMuriate of potash 60 K2O which gives 60kg hK2O 60 x 100 100kg muriate of potash60ExampleA farmer was asked to apply fertilizers as follows:200kg ha of DSP 40 P2O5150kg ha of muriate of potash 60 K2O 150kg ha of sulphate of ammonia 20 N How much P2O5 did the farmer apply per acre? How much K2O did the farmer apply per hectare? How much N did the farmer apply per hectare? Solution AnswerP2O5 applied per hectare from 200kg of DSP40 100x 200 80kg ha P2O 5K2O5 applied per hectare from 150kg of muriate of potash60 100x150 90kg ha K2ON applied per hectare from 150kg ha sulphate of ammonia20 100 x 150 30kg ha NSoil SamplingRefers to obtaining of small quantity of soil that is representative in all aspects of the entire farm. Soil Sampling ProceduresClear the vegetation over the site. Dig out soil at depths of 15-25cm. Place the dug out soil in a clean container. Mix thoroughly the soil in the container. Take a sample and send it to National Agricultural Laboratory for analysis.


Fertilizers and manures application can be easily mechanized. It is possible to develop new crop varieties due to cross pollination. Disantivantages of using seeds as planting materials. Some seeds have long dormancy and they may need special treatment in order to germinate. Plants raised from seeds have variations from the mother plant due to cross pollination, This may introduce undesirable characteristics. Soil borne pests may damage seeds if left for sometime in the soil before rain falls. Some seeds may lose viability if stored for a long time. This leads to gaps in the farm. Vegetative materials. These are plant parts which have the ability to produce roots, they grow and develop in to new plants. Plant parts such as leaves, roots or stems can be used for planting as long as they are capable of rooting. Advantages of using vegetative materials for planting. Crops originating from vegetative materials matures faster than those from seeds. The crops shows uniformity in such qualities as disease resistance, seed size, colour, keeping or storing quality and chemical composition. It is possible to produce many varieties of compatible crops on the same root stock. Use of the vegetative materials is easier and faster, especially where seeds show prolonged dormancy. The resulting plant has desired shape and size for ease of harvesting and spraying. It facilitates the propagation of crops which are seedless or those that produce seeds which are not viable or have a long dormancy period. Such crops include sugar-cane, bananas, Napier grass and others. Disadvantages. Vegetative propagation does not result in new crop varieties. Keeping the materials free of diseases is difficult. Materials cannot be stored for long. The materials are bulky and there fore difficult to store and transport. Plant parts used for vegetative propagation. Bulbils. These are tiny sisal plants produced in the inflorescence almost at the end of the plant growth cycle. They resemble the mother plant except that they are smaller in size. They are produced by the branches of the sisal pole. When manure they mature they develop rudimentary roots and fall off to the ground just below the pole. They are the collected and raised in the nurseries before they are transplanted t o the main field. One sisal pole may produce as many as 3,000 bulbils. They are usually 10cm long.


They are the collected and raised in the nurseries before they are transplanted t o the main field. One sisal pole may produce as many as 3,000 bulbils. They are usually 10cm long. They make good planting materials and are better than suckeSplitsThese are plantlets divided from the existing mother plant with complete with complete leaves and rooting system. They are used to propagate most pasture grasses and pyrethrum. Pyrethrum splits are raised first in nursery and then transplanted to the field. Crowns and slipsThese are materials used to propagate pineapplesCrowns are born on top of the fruits and are broken off and prepared for planting. They are more preferred to suckers because they give uniform growth and take two years to reach maturity. Slips are borne to the base of the pineapple fruits. They are cut and prepared for plantings. Their growth rate is faster than for crowns giving average uniformity. They take 22 months from planting to maturity. Crowns and slips are planted in the nurseries first before transplanting to the main seed bed. SuckersThese are small plants that grow from the base of the main stem. They have adventitious roots which grow quickly when planted to form a new plant. They are used to propagate bananas, sisal, and pineapples. When planted, suckers give uneven growth leading to maturity at different times. They should be planted when they are young. TubersThese are underground food storage organs which are short and thick. They are used as vegetative propagation materials because they sprout and produce roots for growth. There are mainly two types of tubers, the stem and root tubers. Root tubers develop from the thickening of the adventitious roots. Root tubers are not commonly used for propagation since they produce weak stems. A good example of a root tuber is the sweet potato. On the other hand stem tubers have some auxiliary buds which are sometimes referred to as eyes . These eyes sprout to produce stems which grow into plants. Stem tubers are therefore swollen stems with scales leaves. A good example of a stem tuber is Irish potato. Vines. These are soft wood cuttings which produce roots easily upon planting to give rise to new plants. They are cut from the mother plants and planted directly into the field. Soft wood cuttings vines are taken from rapidly growing shoots.


These are soft wood cuttings which produce roots easily upon planting to give rise to new plants. They are cut from the mother plants and planted directly into the field. Soft wood cuttings vines are taken from rapidly growing shoots. The soft upper parts of the shoots are preferred. When preparing the cuttings, some leaves and nodes are included. Roots are produced from the nodes. Cuttings and settsCuttings are portion of plants parts which are cut and then planted. They may be from stems, roots or leaves. A stem cutting must have a bud which develops into shoot. The root cutting must have an eye. Cutting must have an eye. Cuttings must produce leaves as soon as possible so that they can start making their own food. Sometimes cuttings are induced to produce roots by use of rooting hormones. Once the cuttings have developed roots, they give rise to new plants. In some crops, the cuttings are big enough to be planted directly to the main seedbed whereas there are some plants whose cuttings are first raised in special nurseries before they are transplanted to the seedbed. The cuttings of Napier grass and sugar-cane are planted directly on the seedbed but those of tea; have to be raised in special nursery before they are transferred to the seed bed. Examples of crops which are propagated by use of stem cuttings include: tea, cassava, and sugar-cane and Napier grass. The stem cuttings used to propagate sugar-cane are known as setts . Setts are stem cuttings which have 3-5 nodes are usually 30-45 cm long. Factors affecting rooting of cuttings. Temperature: for the cuttings to produce roots warm temperatures are required around the root zone while cool temperatures are important for the aerial part of the cuttings. For most species optimum day and light temperatures for rooting are 22 -27 c and 15-21 c respectively. Relative humidity: Proper rooting of cuttings requires high humidity which lower the transpiration rate. It also increases and maintains leaf turgidity all the time. As such, cuttings should be rooted in green houses or under shady conditions, where relative humidity can be regulated. Sometimes the propagation area can be sprayed with water to keep it moist. Light intensity: soft wood cuttings need high intensity light to produce roots. This is because light promotes the production of roots since it affects the rate of photosynthesis.


Sometimes the propagation area can be sprayed with water to keep it moist. Light intensity: soft wood cuttings need high intensity light to produce roots. This is because light promotes the production of roots since it affects the rate of photosynthesis. Hard wood cuttings do well in dark conditions since they have high amount of stored carbohydrates and therefore rooting is excellent in darkness. Oxygen supply: plentiful supply of oxygen is required for root formation. The rooting medium used must therefore be capable of allowing proper aeration. Chemical treatment: these rooting hormones which promote the production of roots in cuttings. The common ones include IAA Indoleacetic acid . Leaf area: Soft woods cuttings require a lot of leaves for photosynthesis while hardwood cuttings will produce roots better without leaves. Selection of planting materialsWhen selecting materials for planting the following factors must be considered:Suitability to the ecological conditions the selected planting materials should be well adapted to the soil conditions, temperatures and amount of rainfall in the area. There are many varieties of maize, for example, which are suitable to different ecological conditions. Hybrid 622f or example is mainly for the high altitudes areas of 513 for the medium altitudes and the Katumani composites for the low rainfall areas while the coast composites are suitable for the coastal conditions each variety will grow well and produce high yields if grown under the correct conditionsPurity of the materials - planting materials should be pure and not mixed with other off types the percentage purity of planting materials will affect the seed while higher seeds rates are used for impure seeds. Germination percentage - This is a measure of the germination potential of seeds it is expressed as a percentage for example a germination percentage of 80 means that for every 10 seeds planted 80 of them are expected to germinate. Germination percentage helps to determine the seed rates of crops lower seed rates are used for crops with higher germination percentage while higher seed rates are used for those with lower germination percentage. Certified seeds - These are seeds which have been tested and proven to have 100 germination potential and free from diseases and pests they give high yields after the first planting but the subsequent yields decline if replaced therefore in this case it is always advisable to buy new seeds which are certified every time planting is doneIn certified seeds are produced by the seed company KSC and distributed by Kenya Farmers Association KFA and other agents. PREPARATION OF PLANTING MATERIALS.


Germination percentage helps to determine the seed rates of crops lower seed rates are used for crops with higher germination percentage while higher seed rates are used for those with lower germination percentage. Certified seeds - These are seeds which have been tested and proven to have 100 germination potential and free from diseases and pests they give high yields after the first planting but the subsequent yields decline if replaced therefore in this case it is always advisable to buy new seeds which are certified every time planting is doneIn certified seeds are produced by the seed company KSC and distributed by Kenya Farmers Association KFA and other agents. PREPARATION OF PLANTING MATERIALS. After the planting materials are selected they are prepared in different ways before they are planted. Some of the methods used to prepare planting materials include the following: a Breaking the seed dormancy. Some seeds undergo a dormancy period between maturity and the time they sprout. The dormancy period is the stage whereby a seed cannot germinate, the stage of inhibited growth of seed. It should be broken before the seed is planted. Methods of breaking seed dormancy. The following methods are used to break seed dormancy: I Mechanical method: This is a method which aims at scratching the seed coat to make it permeable to water. Scarification is done by rubbing small sized seeds against hard surface such as sand paper, while filling or nicking the seed coat with a knife is done to large sized seeds such as croton seeds. Ii Heat treatment: this involves the use of hot water or burning the seeds lightly. It softens the seed coat making it permeable to water and thus is able to germinate. The seeds are soaked in hot water about 80 c for 3-4 minutes after which the water is allowed to drain off. Example of seeds treated in this way include: leucean calliadra and acacia. Light burning also serves the same purpose as hot water treatment. In this case trash is spread over the seeds which are already covered with a thin layer of soil. The trash is burned, after which the seeds are retrieved and planted. Examples include acacia and wattle tree seeds. Overheating should be avoided as this will cook the seeds. Iii Chemical treatment: seeds are dipped in specific chemicals such as concentrated sulphuric acid, for two minutes and then removed. The chemical wears off the seed coat making it permeable to water.


Overheating should be avoided as this will cook the seeds. Iii Chemical treatment: seeds are dipped in specific chemicals such as concentrated sulphuric acid, for two minutes and then removed. The chemical wears off the seed coat making it permeable to water. Care should be taken not to leave the seeds in the chemicals for too long as this will kill the embryo. Cotton seeds are normally treated with chemicals to remove the lint or fibres. Iv Soaking in water: seeds are soaked in water for a period of between 24 48 hours until they swell. They are then removed and planted immediately. The seeds treated thus germinate very fast. Pre-germinated seeds are used when raising rice in the nurseries. B Seed dressingThis is the coating of seeds with fungicides or an insecticide or a combination of the two chemicals. This is particularly common with cereals, sugar-cane and legumes. The chemicals protect the seedlings from soil-borne diseases and pests. Certified seeds which are sold by seed merchants in have been dressed with these chemicals. Farmers can also buy the chemicals and dress their own seeds. C Seed inoculationIn areas where soils are deficient in nitrogen, legumes such as beans, clovers and peas should be coated with an inoculant. An innoculant is a preparation which contains the right strain of Rhizobium depending on the type of legume and encourages nodulation, hence nitrogen fixation. Below is a table showing different legume crops and their right strain of Rhizobium. When handling inoculated seeds, care should be taken to prevent them from coming in contact with chemicals. This means that inoculated seeds should not be dressed with chemicals as these will kill the bacterium. They should also be planted when the soil is moist to avoid dehydration which kills the bacterium. D ChittingThis practice is also referred to as sprouting. The selected seed potatoes setts which are used as planting materials are sprouted before planting to break their dormancy. The setts of about 3-6 cm in diameter are arranged in layers of 2 or 3 tubers deep in a partiallydarkened room. The setts should be arranged with the rose- end facing upwards and the heel-end downwards. Diffused light encourages the production of short, green and healthy sprouts. If Chitting is done in complete darkness, long, pale thin sprouts develop which break easily during planting.


The setts should be arranged with the rose- end facing upwards and the heel-end downwards. Diffused light encourages the production of short, green and healthy sprouts. If Chitting is done in complete darkness, long, pale thin sprouts develop which break easily during planting. During Chitting potato aphids and tuber months should be controlled by dusting or spraying the sett with dimethoate. Sometimes a chemical known as Rendite is used to break dormancy, thus inducing sprouting. Chitting is done mainly to make sure that growth commences immediately the seed is planted so as to make maximum use of rains for high yields. Time of plantingThe timing of planting or sowing is influenced by the type of crop to be planted and the environmental conditions of the area. Factors to consider in timing planting. The rainfall pattern moisture condition of the soil. Type of crop to be planted. Soil type. Market demand. Prevalence of pests and diseases. Weed control. Timely planting is necessary and should be done at the onset of rains. In some areas where rainfall is scare dry planting is recommended. Advantages of timely planting. Crops make maximum use of rainfall and suitable soil temperature, leading to vigorous growth. Crops usually escape serious pests and diseases attack. Crops benefit from nitrogen flush which is available at the beginning of the rain. For horticultural crops, proper timing ensures that the produce is marketed when prices are high. Crops establish earlier than the weeds, hence smothering them. Methods of planting. There are two main methods of planting :-Broadcasting. Row planting. Broadcasting. This method involves scattering the seeds all over the field in a random manner. It is commonly adapted for light tiny seeds such as those of pasture grasses. It is easier, quicker and cheaper than row planting. However, it uses more seeds than row planting and the seeds are spread unevenly leading to crowding of plants in some places. This results in poor performance due to competition. Broadcasting gives a good ground cover, but weeding cannot be mechanized. For good results, the seedbed should be weed-free, firm and have a fine tilth. Row planting. The seeds or other planting materials are placed in holes, drills or furrows in rows. The distance between one row to the other and from one hole to the other is known. In , both large and small scale farmers practice row planting.


The seeds or other planting materials are placed in holes, drills or furrows in rows. The distance between one row to the other and from one hole to the other is known. In , both large and small scale farmers practice row planting. It is practiced when planting many types of crops, especially perennial, annual and root crops. Advantages of row planting. Machines can be used easily between the rows. It is easy to establish the correct plant population. Lower seed rate is used than if broadcasting is adopted. It is easy to carry out cultural practices such as weeding, spraying and harvesting. Disadvantages of row planting. It does not provide an ample foliage cover. Thus the soil is liable to being eroded by wind and water. It is more expensive than broadcasting because of consuming a lot of labour and time. It requires some skill in measuring the distances between and within the rows. Seeds can also be planted by dibbling where the planting holes are dug by use of pangas or jembe, or by a dibbling stick dibbler . Most of the dibbling is done randomly although rows can also be used when using a planting line. Random dibbling is not popular in commercial farming due to low levels of production. It is only common among conservative farmers in planting of legumes such as beans, pigeon peas and cow peas. Over-sowing. This is the introduction of a pasture legume such as desmodium in an existing grass pasture. Some form of growth suppression of existing grass such as burning, slashing or hard grazing plus slight soil disturbance is recommended before over sowing. A heavy dose of superphosphate, preferably single supers at a rate of 200-400 kg ha is applied. The grass must be kept short until the legume is fully established. Regardless of the method of establishment, the pastures and fodder stands should be ready for light grazing 4-5 months after planting if rainfall and soil fertility are not limiting. Under-sowing. This refers to the establishment of pasture under a cover crop, usually maize. Maize is planted as recommended and weeded 2-3 weeks after the onset of rains. Pasture seeds are then broadcasted with half the recommended basal fertilizer. No further weeding should be done and maize should be harvested early to expose the young pasture seedlings to sunlight. The benefits of under sowing include facilitating more intensive land utilization and encouraging an early establishment of pastures.


Pasture seeds are then broadcasted with half the recommended basal fertilizer. No further weeding should be done and maize should be harvested early to expose the young pasture seedlings to sunlight. The benefits of under sowing include facilitating more intensive land utilization and encouraging an early establishment of pastures. Fodder crops and vegetetively propagated pasture species may also be under sown as long as rainfall is adequate for their establishment. Timing is not very crucial in this case and planting can be done as late as 6-8 weeks after the onset of rains. Plant populationThis refers to the ideal number of plants that can be comfortably accommodated in any given area, without overcrowding or too few to waste space. Agricultural research has arrived at the optimum number of various crop plants to be recommended to farmers. Plant population is determined by dividing the planting area by spacing of the crop. This may be simplified thus:Area of landPlant population Pacing of cropExampleGiven that maize is planted at a spacing of 75 x25 cm, calculate the plant population in a plot of land measuring 4x3 m. WorkingArea of landPlant population Pacing of cropArea of land 400cm x 300 cmSpacing of maize 75 cm x 25 cmTherefore, plant population 400 cm x 300 cm75 cm x 25 cm 64 plants. SpacingIt is the distance of plants between and within the rows. Correct spacing for each crop has been established as shown in table below. Spacing determines plant population and the main aim of correct spacing is to obtain maximum number of plants per unit area which will make maximum use of environmental factors. Wider spacing leads to a reduced plant population which means lower yields, whereas closer spacing could lead to overcrowding of plants and competition for nutrients and other resources would occur. Correctly spaced crops produce yield of high quality that are acceptable in the market. Spacing is determined by the following factors:The type of machinery to be used. The space between the rows should allow free passage of the machinery which can be used in the field. For example, the spacing between rows of coffee is supposed to allow movement of tractor drawn implements. Soil fertilityA fertile soil can support high plant population. Therefore closer spacing is possible. The size of plantTall crop varieties require wider spacing while short varieties require closer spacing, for example, Kitale hybrid maize is widely spaced than Katumani maize.


Soil fertilityA fertile soil can support high plant population. Therefore closer spacing is possible. The size of plantTall crop varieties require wider spacing while short varieties require closer spacing, for example, Kitale hybrid maize is widely spaced than Katumani maize. Moisture availability. Areas with higher rainfall are capable of supporting a large number of plants hence closer spacing than areas of low rainfall. Use of crop. Crop grown for the supply of forage or silage material is planted at a closer spacing than for grain production. And diseases control. When crops are properly spaced, pests might find it difficult to move from one place to the other, for example, aphids in groundnuts. Growth habit. Spreading and tillering crop varieties require wider spacing than erect type. Seed rate. Seed rate is the amount of seeds to be planted in a given unit area governed by ultimate crop stand which is desired. The objective of correct spacing of crop is to obtain the maximum yields from a unit area without sacrificing quality. Most crops are seeded at lighter rates under drier conditions than under wet or irrigated conditions. Seeds with low germination percentage are planted at higher rates than those which have about 100 germination percentage. There is an optimal seed rate for various crops. For example, the seed rate for maize is 22 kg per hectare, wheat is 110 kg per hectare and cotton is between 17 to 45 kg per hectare. Factors to consider in choosing seed rates. Seed purity. When planting seed which is pure or with a high germination percentage, less seed is required. On the contrary, more seeds are required when using impure or mixed seeds. Germination percentage. Less seed is used when its germination percentage is higher. Seed of lower germination percentage is required in large amounts. Spacing. At closer spacing, more seeds are used than in a wider spacing. Number of seeds per hole. When two or more seeds are planted per hole, higher seed rate is required than when only one seed is planted per hole. The purpose of the crop. A crop to be used for silage making is spaced more closely than one meant for grain production. This would require use of more seeds. Maize to be used for silage making, for example, requires more seeds than that meant for production of grain. Depth of planting. This is the distance from the soil surface to where the seed is placed.


Maize to be used for silage making, for example, requires more seeds than that meant for production of grain. Depth of planting. This is the distance from the soil surface to where the seed is placed. The correct depth of planting is determined by:Soil type: seeds will emerge from grater depths in sandy soil that are lighter than in clay soils. Soil moisture content: It is recommended that one plants deep in dry soils in order to place the seeds in a zone with moist soil. Size of the seed: Larger seeds are planted deeper in the soil because they have enough food reserves to make them shoot and emerge through the soil to the surface. Type of germination: seeds with epigeal type of germination carry cotyledons above the soil surface such as beans, should be planted shallower than those with hypogeal type of germination leave cotyledons under the soil such as maize. Suggested Activities. Learners to carry out planting using broadcasting method and planting rows. Learners to identify different vegetative propagation materials displayed by the teacher. Learners to determine the correct plant population for a given area by mathematical calculations. Learners to collect samples of different tree seeds and prepare them for planting by various methods of breaking seed dormancy. Learners to determine the germination percentage of different samples of cereals and legume seeds. Crop Production III Nursery Practices IntroductionPlanting materials are either planted directly in a seedbed or indirectly through a nursery bed. A seedbed is a piece of land which could be small or large and prepared to receive planting materials. A nursery bed on the other hand is a small plot of land specially prepared for raising seedlings or planting materials before transplanting. It is usually 1m wide and any convenient length depending on the quantity of seedlings to be raised. A seedling bed is a special type of nursery bed used for raising seedlings pricked out from the nursery bed due to overcrowding before they are ready for transplanting. Pricking out refers to the removal of seedlings from a nursery bed to a seedling bed. Nursery practices refer to all the activities carried out throughout a nursery life to raise seedlings. . Importance of Nursery Bed in Crop ProductionTo facilitate the production of many seedlings in a small area. It is easy to carry out management practices in a nursery than in the seedbed.


. Importance of Nursery Bed in Crop ProductionTo facilitate the production of many seedlings in a small area. It is easy to carry out management practices in a nursery than in the seedbed. It facilitates the planting of small seeds which develop into strong seedlings that are easily transplanted. It ensures transplanting of only healthy and vigorous growing seedlings. It reduces the period taken by the crop in the field. Excess seedlings from the nursery may be sold to earn income. Selection of a Nursery SiteFactors to consider;Nearness to the water source. Type of soil.-should be well drained, deep and fertile, preferably loam soil. Topography.-it should be situated on a gentle slope to prevent flooding and erosion through surface run-off. Previous cropping.-to avoid build up of pests and diseases associated with particular plant families, consider the preceding crops. Security.-select a site that is protected from theft and destruction by animals. Protection against strong winds and heat of the sun.-select a sheltered place. I.e. to avoid excessive evapotranspiration and uprooting seedlings. Types of NurseriesCategories of nurseries:Vegetable Nursery:They are used for raising the seedlings of vegetable crops. Tomatoes, cabbages, kale, onions, brinjals and peppers. Vegetable Propagation Nurseries:They are used for inducing root production in cuttings before they are transplanted,The cuttings can be planted directly in the soil and hence called bare root nurseries. Or planted into containers such as pots, polythene bags and others, hence called containerized nurseries. Tree Nurseries:These are used for raising tree seedlings. The seedlings can be raised in bare root nurseries or in containerized nurseries. Nursery Management Practices:These are the practices carried out in the nursery while the planting materials are growing. They include:Mulching. Light mulch should be applied on thenursery bed. It be should be removed on the 4th dayWeed control. Shading. Pricking out. Pests and disease control. Hardening offWatering. Preparation of vegetative materials for planting:Cuttings -These are plant parts such as stems, leaves and roots induced to produce roots and used as planting materials. Grafting It is the practice of uniting two separate woody stems.


Hardening offWatering. Preparation of vegetative materials for planting:Cuttings -These are plant parts such as stems, leaves and roots induced to produce roots and used as planting materials. Grafting It is the practice of uniting two separate woody stems. The part bearing the roots is referred to as root stock while the part which is grafted onto the rootstock is known as scion. The scion has buds which develop into the future plant. The ability of the rootstock and the scion to form a successful union is termed as compatibility. Methods of GraftingWhip or tongue grafting:In this case the diameter of the rootstock and the scion are the same. It is carried out when the diameter of the scion and the rootstock is 'pencil' thick. Side grafting: In this case the diameter of the rootstock is bigger than thatof the scion. Other types of grafting include ;Approach grafting,Notch graftingBark grafting. Budding:It is the practice of uniting a vegetative bud to a seedling of another plant. The scion has only one bud and some bark with or without wood. The bud is inserted in a slit made on the bark of the stock. It is held tightly on the stock by tying with a budding tape until it produces a shoot. Methods of Budding:T-buddingTop buddingPatch budding. Importance of Budding and Grafting:Plants with desirable root characteristics but with undesirable products may be used to produce desirable products for example lemon-orange graft. They facilitate the changing of the top of the tree from being undesirable to desirableThey make it possible to grow more than one type of fruit or flower on the same plant. They help to propagate clones that cannot be propagated in any other way. They help to shorten the maturity period. LayeringIt is the process by which a part of a plant is induced to produce roots while still attached to the mother plant. Once the roots have been produced, the stem is then cut off and planted. Types of layering;Marcotting or aerial layering. Tip layering. Trench layering. Compound or serpentine. Tissue Culture for Crop PropagationTissue culture is a biotechnology used in cloning vegetatively propagated plants. It is based on the ability of plant tissue or cells to regenerate other parts of the plant.


Compound or serpentine. Tissue Culture for Crop PropagationTissue culture is a biotechnology used in cloning vegetatively propagated plants. It is based on the ability of plant tissue or cells to regenerate other parts of the plant. The tissues are derived from shoot tips where cells are undergoing rapid cell division and are not differentiated. The cells are then provided with the right conditions which enable them to multiply and develop roots. The Right Conditions for tissue culture:Culture medium. Correct temperature. Correct light intensity andCorrect relative humidity. Importance of Tissue Culture in Crop PropagationIt is used to recover and establish pathogen-free plants especially in the control of viral diseases. It is used in mass production of plantlets or propagules. It is fast and requires less space than the cultural methods of using cutting which requires a bigger space. Transplanting SeedlingsTransplanting of vegetable and tree seedlings are generally the same. Generally, vegetable seedlings are ready for transplanting when they are one month old or have 4 -6 leaves or are about 10-15cm in height. Before transplanting, the nursery bed is adequately watered 3 - 4 hours before lifting the seedlings. This ensures the seedlings are lifted easily with a ball of earth around the roots to minimize root damage. Tree seedlings take a little longer to reach transplanting age compared to vegetable crop seedlings. The roots are trimmed before lifting the seedlings. Transplanting should be done at the onset of the long rains to give the young trees a good start. After transplanting the young trees should be protected from damage by animals for a period of about one year. Crop production IV Field Practices I IntroductionField practices are activities carried out on the field to facilitate proper growth and maximum yield of the various crops grown. They include the following:Crop RotationMulchingR0uting field practicesCrop protectionHarvestingCrop RotationThis is the growing of different types on the same piece of land in different seasons, in an orderly sequence. Importance of Crop RotationMaximizes use of nutrients and moisture. Breaks the life cycle of pests and disease agents. Maintains good soil structure. Reduces soil erosion due to adequate soil cover. Controls weeds that are specific to certain crops e.g. striga on cerealsImproves soil fertility when legumes are included in crop rotation. Factors Influencing Rotational ProgrammeGrowth habits and nutrient req uirements.