HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 1 IMPORTANT TIPS ON PREPARING LEARNERS TO DO WELL IN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT. History is one of the best and interesting subjects to ever imagine of because it cuts across time, humanity, medicine, art, agriculture, politics and education; History is based on facts and justification A good historian must be able to read different texts books, internalize facts, locate the past in the present day happenings and formulate questions based on the content. The following tips will help History AND Government students to excel in history and government 1. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PAPER 1 AND PAPER 2 History students should be sensitized early enough to distinguish between paper 1 and 2 topics. PAPER 1-The history of Kenya PAPER 2-Themes in world 311 1 PAPER ONE 311 2 PAPER TWO 1.Introduction to History and Govt 2.The Peoples of Kenya up to 19th Century 3.Social, Economic and Political Organization of Kenyan Communities 4.Contacts between East Africa and the outside world 5.Citizenship 6.National Integration 7.Constitutions and Constitution Making 8.Democracy and Human Rights 9.Establishment of Colonial Rule in Kenya 1.Introduction to History and Govt 2.The Early Man 3.Development of Agriculture 4.Trade 5.Transport 6.Communication 7.Development of Industry 8.Urbanisation 9.Social, Political and Economic organization of African Societies 10.Constitutions and constitution making-sources of British Constitution 11.Democracy and Human Rights 12.European invasion and the process of colonization of Africa 13.Colonial Administration For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 2 10.Social and Economic Developments in Kenya during colonial period 11.Political developments and the struggle for Independence in Kenya 12.Lives and Contributions of Kenyan Leaders 13.Formation, structure and functions of the Govt of Kenya 14.Social, Economic and Political Developments and challenges in Kenya since Independence 15.National Philosophies 16.Devolved Government 17.Public Revenue and expenditure 14.Rise of African Nationalism 15.


The following tips will help History AND Government students to excel in history and government 1. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PAPER 1 AND PAPER 2 History students should be sensitized early enough to distinguish between paper 1 and 2 topics. PAPER 1-The history of Kenya PAPER 2-Themes in world 311 1 PAPER ONE 311 2 PAPER TWO 1.Introduction to History and Govt 2.The Peoples of Kenya up to 19th Century 3.Social, Economic and Political Organization of Kenyan Communities 4.Contacts between East Africa and the outside world 5.Citizenship 6.National Integration 7.Constitutions and Constitution Making 8.Democracy and Human Rights 9.Establishment of Colonial Rule in Kenya 1.Introduction to History and Govt 2.The Early Man 3.Development of Agriculture 4.Trade 5.Transport 6.Communication 7.Development of Industry 8.Urbanisation 9.Social, Political and Economic organization of African Societies 10.Constitutions and constitution making-sources of British Constitution 11.Democracy and Human Rights 12.European invasion and the process of colonization of Africa 13.Colonial Administration For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 2 10.Social and Economic Developments in Kenya during colonial period 11.Political developments and the struggle for Independence in Kenya 12.Lives and Contributions of Kenyan Leaders 13.Formation, structure and functions of the Govt of Kenya 14.Social, Economic and Political Developments and challenges in Kenya since Independence 15.National Philosophies 16.Devolved Government 17.Public Revenue and expenditure 14.Rise of African Nationalism 15. World Wars 1 2 16.International Relations 17.Cooperation in Africa 18. Social, Economic and Political Developments and challenges in Africa since Independence. 19. The Electoral process, functions of governments in other parts of the World. -Britain -USA -India When answering questions for paper 2, never mention anything Kenyan. Learners should make good and summarized notes from KLB and Oxford history and government students course books, using their own language, given leading topical questions by the history teacher. 2.


-Britain -USA -India When answering questions for paper 2, never mention anything Kenyan. Learners should make good and summarized notes from KLB and Oxford history and government students course books, using their own language, given leading topical questions by the history teacher. 2. TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONS a Cover page instructions-This enables candidates to know the number of sections in a paper and number of questions to be answered fro, each section e.g Section A has 17 questions N B-QUIZ 1 IN PAPER 1 AND 2 ALWAYS TEST ON TOPIC 1-FORM 1 WORK For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 3 8-2mark questions 16 marks 9-1mark question 9 marks Total marks 25 marks-the candidate answers all questions Section B has 4 questions with part a and b each carrying 15 marks The candidate should answer any three questions Section C has 3 questions with part a and b each carrying 15 marks The candidate should answer any two questions TOPICS COMMONLY TESTED ARE: PAPER 1- SECTION B- The candidate should answer any three questions 18 a b -The peoples of Kenya and or The social, economic and political organization the Kenyan Communities-F1 WORK 19a b Contacts between East Africa and the outside world FORM 1 WORK 20a b Establishment of colonial rule in Kenya and or the Social economic and political development in Kenya during the colonial period.-FORM 3 WORK 21a b Political developments and the struggle for independence in Kenya FORM 3 WORK Political, social and economic developments and challenges in Kenya since independenceFORM 4 WORK SECTION C- The candidate should answer any two questions 22a b-citizenship national integration-FORM 1 WORK Constitution and constitution making democracy and human rights-FORM 2 WORK 23a b Formation, structure and functions of the Government of Kenya-FORM 3 WORK 24 a b -Public revenue and expenditure in Kenya and devolved government-FORM 4 WORK PAPER 2 SECTION B- The candidate should answer any three questions 18a b Early man and Development of agriculture-form 1 work For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 4 19a b Trade development of transport and communication development of industry 20a b Urbanization scramble for and partition of Africa 21a b Rise of African Nationalism and political and socio-economic organization of the African societies social-economic and political developments and challenges in Africa since independence DRC-Congo and Tanzania SECTION C- The candidate should answer any two questions 22a b WORLD WARS COLONIAL ADMINSTRATION 23a b Cooperation in Africa International Relations 24a b Electoral process and functions of Government in U.S.A, Britain and India N B-If part a of the questions in the topics above is easier and part b is difficult,do not choose it because you may get at most 3 12 marks If part a is hard but part b is easier choose such question you will get atleast 12 15 marks 3.


Learners should make good and summarized notes from KLB and Oxford history and government students course books, using their own language, given leading topical questions by the history teacher. 2. TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONS a Cover page instructions-This enables candidates to know the number of sections in a paper and number of questions to be answered fro, each section e.g Section A has 17 questions N B-QUIZ 1 IN PAPER 1 AND 2 ALWAYS TEST ON TOPIC 1-FORM 1 WORK For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 3 8-2mark questions 16 marks 9-1mark question 9 marks Total marks 25 marks-the candidate answers all questions Section B has 4 questions with part a and b each carrying 15 marks The candidate should answer any three questions Section C has 3 questions with part a and b each carrying 15 marks The candidate should answer any two questions TOPICS COMMONLY TESTED ARE: PAPER 1- SECTION B- The candidate should answer any three questions 18 a b -The peoples of Kenya and or The social, economic and political organization the Kenyan Communities-F1 WORK 19a b Contacts between East Africa and the outside world FORM 1 WORK 20a b Establishment of colonial rule in Kenya and or the Social economic and political development in Kenya during the colonial period.-FORM 3 WORK 21a b Political developments and the struggle for independence in Kenya FORM 3 WORK Political, social and economic developments and challenges in Kenya since independenceFORM 4 WORK SECTION C- The candidate should answer any two questions 22a b-citizenship national integration-FORM 1 WORK Constitution and constitution making democracy and human rights-FORM 2 WORK 23a b Formation, structure and functions of the Government of Kenya-FORM 3 WORK 24 a b -Public revenue and expenditure in Kenya and devolved government-FORM 4 WORK PAPER 2 SECTION B- The candidate should answer any three questions 18a b Early man and Development of agriculture-form 1 work For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 4 19a b Trade development of transport and communication development of industry 20a b Urbanization scramble for and partition of Africa 21a b Rise of African Nationalism and political and socio-economic organization of the African societies social-economic and political developments and challenges in Africa since independence DRC-Congo and Tanzania SECTION C- The candidate should answer any two questions 22a b WORLD WARS COLONIAL ADMINSTRATION 23a b Cooperation in Africa International Relations 24a b Electoral process and functions of Government in U.S.A, Britain and India N B-If part a of the questions in the topics above is easier and part b is difficult,do not choose it because you may get at most 3 12 marks If part a is hard but part b is easier choose such question you will get atleast 12 15 marks 3. INSTRUCTIONS WITH QUESTIONS The history students should understand the key words within the questions since it determines the kind of answers they will present,e.g a Name-giving an identity of something or someone,e.g name the early form of writing that was discovered in Egypt.


2. TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONS a Cover page instructions-This enables candidates to know the number of sections in a paper and number of questions to be answered fro, each section e.g Section A has 17 questions N B-QUIZ 1 IN PAPER 1 AND 2 ALWAYS TEST ON TOPIC 1-FORM 1 WORK For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 3 8-2mark questions 16 marks 9-1mark question 9 marks Total marks 25 marks-the candidate answers all questions Section B has 4 questions with part a and b each carrying 15 marks The candidate should answer any three questions Section C has 3 questions with part a and b each carrying 15 marks The candidate should answer any two questions TOPICS COMMONLY TESTED ARE: PAPER 1- SECTION B- The candidate should answer any three questions 18 a b -The peoples of Kenya and or The social, economic and political organization the Kenyan Communities-F1 WORK 19a b Contacts between East Africa and the outside world FORM 1 WORK 20a b Establishment of colonial rule in Kenya and or the Social economic and political development in Kenya during the colonial period.-FORM 3 WORK 21a b Political developments and the struggle for independence in Kenya FORM 3 WORK Political, social and economic developments and challenges in Kenya since independenceFORM 4 WORK SECTION C- The candidate should answer any two questions 22a b-citizenship national integration-FORM 1 WORK Constitution and constitution making democracy and human rights-FORM 2 WORK 23a b Formation, structure and functions of the Government of Kenya-FORM 3 WORK 24 a b -Public revenue and expenditure in Kenya and devolved government-FORM 4 WORK PAPER 2 SECTION B- The candidate should answer any three questions 18a b Early man and Development of agriculture-form 1 work For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 4 19a b Trade development of transport and communication development of industry 20a b Urbanization scramble for and partition of Africa 21a b Rise of African Nationalism and political and socio-economic organization of the African societies social-economic and political developments and challenges in Africa since independence DRC-Congo and Tanzania SECTION C- The candidate should answer any two questions 22a b WORLD WARS COLONIAL ADMINSTRATION 23a b Cooperation in Africa International Relations 24a b Electoral process and functions of Government in U.S.A, Britain and India N B-If part a of the questions in the topics above is easier and part b is difficult,do not choose it because you may get at most 3 12 marks If part a is hard but part b is easier choose such question you will get atleast 12 15 marks 3. INSTRUCTIONS WITH QUESTIONS The history students should understand the key words within the questions since it determines the kind of answers they will present,e.g a Name-giving an identity of something or someone,e.g name the early form of writing that was discovered in Egypt. B state-giving a statement according to what has been asked e.g state three ways in which the Sumerians reclaimed their land in Mesopotamia.


TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONS a Cover page instructions-This enables candidates to know the number of sections in a paper and number of questions to be answered fro, each section e.g Section A has 17 questions N B-QUIZ 1 IN PAPER 1 AND 2 ALWAYS TEST ON TOPIC 1-FORM 1 WORK For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 3 8-2mark questions 16 marks 9-1mark question 9 marks Total marks 25 marks-the candidate answers all questions Section B has 4 questions with part a and b each carrying 15 marks The candidate should answer any three questions Section C has 3 questions with part a and b each carrying 15 marks The candidate should answer any two questions TOPICS COMMONLY TESTED ARE: PAPER 1- SECTION B- The candidate should answer any three questions 18 a b -The peoples of Kenya and or The social, economic and political organization the Kenyan Communities-F1 WORK 19a b Contacts between East Africa and the outside world FORM 1 WORK 20a b Establishment of colonial rule in Kenya and or the Social economic and political development in Kenya during the colonial period.-FORM 3 WORK 21a b Political developments and the struggle for independence in Kenya FORM 3 WORK Political, social and economic developments and challenges in Kenya since independenceFORM 4 WORK SECTION C- The candidate should answer any two questions 22a b-citizenship national integration-FORM 1 WORK Constitution and constitution making democracy and human rights-FORM 2 WORK 23a b Formation, structure and functions of the Government of Kenya-FORM 3 WORK 24 a b -Public revenue and expenditure in Kenya and devolved government-FORM 4 WORK PAPER 2 SECTION B- The candidate should answer any three questions 18a b Early man and Development of agriculture-form 1 work For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 4 19a b Trade development of transport and communication development of industry 20a b Urbanization scramble for and partition of Africa 21a b Rise of African Nationalism and political and socio-economic organization of the African societies social-economic and political developments and challenges in Africa since independence DRC-Congo and Tanzania SECTION C- The candidate should answer any two questions 22a b WORLD WARS COLONIAL ADMINSTRATION 23a b Cooperation in Africa International Relations 24a b Electoral process and functions of Government in U.S.A, Britain and India N B-If part a of the questions in the topics above is easier and part b is difficult,do not choose it because you may get at most 3 12 marks If part a is hard but part b is easier choose such question you will get atleast 12 15 marks 3. INSTRUCTIONS WITH QUESTIONS The history students should understand the key words within the questions since it determines the kind of answers they will present,e.g a Name-giving an identity of something or someone,e.g name the early form of writing that was discovered in Egypt. B state-giving a statement according to what has been asked e.g state three ways in which the Sumerians reclaimed their land in Mesopotamia. C Identify-to pick to point and explain briefly e.g identify two forms of government in the world today d Define-giving the meaning of something .be simple and clear to the point e.g define the term rerun of elections e Give - present something as it is e.g give two forms of oral traditions.


TYPES OF QUESTIONS 1. Main only questions-the answer to this question is only one e.g the main reason for the formation of KAU For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 6 Never write more than one response, you will get a zero. 3. Questions on who or names of personalities you can write the surname or full names 4. Questions on functions, you write the doing word the verb should be reflected 5. Questions of features or characteristics e.g on early man-consider the physical appearance-features of Homo rectus-consider the jaws, skin colour,arms,legs,eyes,height ;answers like He invented fire is wrong since invention of fire doesn t appear anywhere on the Homo erectus 6. Open questions the student is not limited to the number of answers to write.e.g what were the social results of the first world war?12 marks 7. Closed questions-these require a specific number of answers e.g Explain five effects of the Portuguese rule at the East African Coast Here only the first five answers are marked whether wrong or correct. In most cases a line is drawn after the fifth answer to ensure only the first five answers are marked. Other examples of closed questions are: Explain six social negative effects of partition of Africa. Such a quiz is closed four times i.e. on six,social,negative and effects 5. EMPHASIS ON THE EXAM LANGUAGE History students should be trained to understand the language used in the question and respond accordingly e.g 1. What are the challenges facing the county government in Kenya today? The answers for such question should be in the present tense. 2. What were the effects of early agriculture in Mesopotamia? The answers to such question should be in the past tense 3. What steps should the government take to improve education in Kenya? In such a question, the answers should be suggestive but not based on the past or the present tense 6. LEARNERS SHOULD PLAN THEIR WORK DURING EXAMS. A They should read through the questions especially in sec B and C in order to select questions they can answer best and present tidy work without cancelling after realizing there are questions they would have answered in a better manner.


In such a question, the answers should be suggestive but not based on the past or the present tense 6. LEARNERS SHOULD PLAN THEIR WORK DURING EXAMS. A They should read through the questions especially in sec B and C in order to select questions they can answer best and present tidy work without cancelling after realizing there are questions they would have answered in a better manner. B They should write short main points against the question paper in pencil as rough work as they remember while going through the question in order to have a good flow of the For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 7 answers staring with the strongest to the weakest points. Also the points will not evaporate while answering questions 7. WRITING PRESENTABLE ANSWERS The art of writing presentable answers should be learnt as early as in form one .e.g In sec A, the answers should not contain unnecessary details e.g state two reasons why Christian missionaries came to East Africa. 1. They came to spread Christianity 2. They came to stop slave trade and advocate for legitimate trade These are enough details for this question. However answers such as: -Christianity and; Slave trade should be discouraged as they are not clear 8. In case of a question that require an answer to be abbreviated, the candidates should always be encouraged to write in full e.g name the body that supervises electoral process in Kenya? In this case IEBC is wrong since the abbreviation may stand for other words; The candidate should write the Independent Electoral and Boundaries commission IEBC Abbreviations accepted are; USA,USSR,FRELIMO AND LegCo 9. Candidates should not give examples they are not sure of e.g state two results of Trans-Atlantic trade Answer:1. It led to the growth or urban centres e.g Mombasa-in such case the whole answer becomes wrong because the word Mombasa. 10. Candidates should be encouraged to have order at all the time e.g numbering their questions correctly e.g 18a,18b, In section B and C, the answers to the part b questions e.g 18 b should be continuous prose.


It led to the growth or urban centres e.g Mombasa-in such case the whole answer becomes wrong because the word Mombasa. 10. Candidates should be encouraged to have order at all the time e.g numbering their questions correctly e.g 18a,18b, In section B and C, the answers to the part b questions e.g 18 b should be continuous prose. Each point to be presented on its own paragraph well numbered like point 1,2,3,4 and so on A question should always be answered with all its parts following each other e.g the 18 b should follow 18a 11. KLB and evolving world students text books are the main reference books to be used by the history students during learning, studying and revising history and government. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 8 12. The students should be exposed to as many past paper questions as possible like the past KCSE quizzes, mocks, topical questions and marking schemes in order to be versed with exam language and the content. 13. When answering questions they should always write common points that are likely to appear in the marking schemes then later write complicated ones. 14. Embrace Group discussions on topical and KCSE quizzes especially in ability groups of four students. The copies of form 1 and 2 exams should be given to the form 4 weak students to sit for them to uplift their ability in history and government. 15. Internal history and government contests and symposiums should be organized like interclass contests e.g form fours against form ones form twos against form threes or form fours. This will make the form fours to study smarter so that the lower classes cannot beat them. 16. History and government students should always read ahead of their teacher with leading topical questions to ensure they are not clueless to a new topic to be covered. 17. Ensure you feed well to keep good health and manage your time by having study timetable with history and government subject included and avoid irrelevant discussions like bad company and too much leisure. 18. Always use the last five minutes to go through your work to identify grammatical errors before you submit it the invigilator. 19. Numbering your answers is accepted 20. Pray for the work done and work yet to be done and have faith in god you will make it.


19.Numbering your answers is accepted 20.Pray for the work done and work yet to be done and have faith in god you will make it. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke.


SIMPLIFIED HISTORY GOVERNMENT FORM ONE New Syllabus. Ii CONTENTS. Chapter 1: Introduction to history and government The meaning of history and government Sources of history and government Importance of studying history and government Review Questions Chapter 2: The Early Man Origin of man and his evolution Uses of early Archeulian tools Methods of dating fossils Early man s cultural practices Changes Early Man experienced Review Questions Chapter 3: Development of Agriculture Early Agriculture Early Agriculture in Egypt Early Agriculture in Mesopotamia Agrarian Revolution in USA Food situation in Third World countries Review Questions Chapter 4: The people of Kenya upto the 19th Century Classification of Kenyan communities Causes and effects of migration of Kenyan people Bantu, Nilotes, Cushites Review Questions Chapter 5: Social, Economic and Political organisation of Kenyan Societies in the 19th Century Organisation of Bantu Agikuyu, Ameru, Akamba, Abagusii, Mijiknda Organisation of Nilotes Luo, Nandi, Maasai Organisation of Cushites Somali, Boran Review Questionsiii Chapter 6: Contact between E. Africa and the outside world up to the 19th Century Contact by the Early visitors Development of trade between E. Africa and Asia How slaves were obtained The Portuguese at the coast Oman Seyyid Said s rule The long distance trade Development of international trade The spread of Christianity in E. Africa Review Questions Chapter 7: Citizenship The way one can become a Kenyan Citizen Rights and freedoms of a Kenyan citizen Responsibilities and elements of a good citizen Review Questions Chapter 8: National integration Meaning and importance of National Integration Factors which promote and limit National Unity Conflict and conflict resolution Review Questions1CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT. History as a discipline, originated during the time the early Greek scholars such as Herodotus and Thucydides wrote documents concerning past activities of man. This activity of recording past events developed over time until the period when the written records began being imparted to learners in schools. In East Africa, the missionaries introduced the first formal schools. It was in these formal schools that history was introduced as a discipline. Since then history has been taught in schools and colleges. History has helped in shaping the people of East Africa intellectually.


It was in these formal schools that history was introduced as a discipline. Since then history has been taught in schools and colleges. History has helped in shaping the people of East Africa intellectually. The meaning of History The term History comes from a Greek word Historia which implies to enquire, to search or to ask for the truth and there after report what you have found. History can therefore be defined as the study or account or story of man s true events of the past out of his interaction with his environment. History is being made from everyday news which concern mankind such that what we regard as news now is treated as history next hour. It is not easy to record all past events of man. The historian considers only what he thinks is important and ignores what he thinks is not important. He arranges historical happenings in chronological order considering the period events occurred. The events are considered to have occurred before the birth of Jesus Christ BC while others occurred after the birth of Christ AD . In Latin AD implies Anno domini or the year of our Lord . All known un-recorded history is referred to as Pre-history. Three major areas of study of history are social, political and economic. Social history deals with the cultural practices and traditions of the people. It deals with social institutions such as tribe, clan, age-set and families. Social history also deals with religious beliefs and practices such as sacrifice and mode of worship. It also deals with other cultural aspects such as rights of passage and many other societal values. Political history deals with wars, leadership, systems of government and settling of disputes. Economic history deals with things concerning activities such as cultivation, pastoralism, mining, trade, hunting and industry. 2The characters of historical events All events of history have the following characteristics: a Historical events should contain elements of truth either from first-hand information or from second-hand information. B Historical events mainly dwell on past happenings. C All historical events must concern man. This implies that they must somehow be connected with man. D Historical information may exist in either written or oral form. E All historical events must have evidence for them to qualify to be true. The meaning of government It means the exercise of authority over a political or social unit. It may also imply the practice of ruling or exercising continuous authority over one s subjects.


E All historical events must have evidence for them to qualify to be true. The meaning of government It means the exercise of authority over a political or social unit. It may also imply the practice of ruling or exercising continuous authority over one s subjects. Any government must have: Sets of laws or rules to govern the people; specific individuals who ensure that the laid down laws, rules, traditions and customs are observed; specified ways of dealing with those who do not adhere to the laid down laws and regulations and a specified area where the set rules and regulations are exercised. The sources of information on History and Government Historians have been able to obtain historical information through various sources such as: a Written records: This is recorded information obtained from books, newspapers, journals, magazines and from oral tradition, interviews and observations. It is then stored for use over the years. Written records are advantageous because they are easily used by people majority of whom are literate, they are more accurate and reliable than the information from other sources, it is cheaper to come up with written records than to get information by use of other sources such as archaeology and linguistics, they store information in a relatively permanent way and they are easily translated into many languages for effective use. 3b Archaeology This is the study of the material remains of man s past. It includes the study of man s weapons, tools, settlements, pottery, skulls, bone and plant remains like grains, and cave paintings. When the remains are escavated, they are carefully examined by the archaeologists and necessary information is obtained. The archaeologists may escavate a place where erosion has exposed a stratum of rock and soil well below the surface, a place where there are partly visible remains or they may be guided by oral traditions to identify the place for instance if the place is orally mentioned for example the Great Zimbabwe and Merowe ruins. The remains exist in the following forms: - Those made by early man such as weapons, tools, pots and ornaments. -. Unmovable structures such as dwellings, dug wells, tombs and early towns. -. Items which are natural such as bone remains, horns, carbonized seeds or grains. Archaeology has various limitations: i It is expensive to use the method to obtain information. Ii It is time consuming especially when one uses the method to locate archaeological sites. Iii Weather can affect fossils, for example fossils may decay or change their form. Iv It is difficult to locate archaeological sites.


Ii It is time consuming especially when one uses the method to locate archaeological sites. Iii Weather can affect fossils, for example fossils may decay or change their form. Iv It is difficult to locate archaeological sites. V Sometimes people who use this method obtain inaccurate information. Vi The archaeological method cannot be used to obtain recent events and information. Only the study of ancient period can be done by use of this method. Vii It is difficult to date fossils and artefacts. A lot of estimation is involved. C Oral tradition This is the study of the past as revealed by what has been handed down by word of mouth from one generation to another. 4In African traditional societies, the elders and court workers acted as the custodians of the history of their community because they passed information concerning their people and their rulers to the young people. In order for the historian to reconstruct the history of the past by use of oral tradition, he refers to myths, legends, songs, proverbs, poems and to the lists of rulers. Oral traditions have a number of limitations as follows: i Information obtained may be exaggerated. Ii Information obtained may be inaccurate or distorted. Iii Sometimes the informants may conceal vital information. Iv Obtaining information by use of this method is expensive. V The method is time consuming and laborious to use. Vi Information may be omitted or even forgotten due to loss of memory. Vii A lot of information on successes and achievement is obtained but very little on failures when this method is used to obtain information concerning African traditional societies. D Linguistics This is the scientific study and analysis of languages. It is done to enable the historian to understand cultures and relationship between various language groups. People who speak related languages are assumed to be either connected or to have ever been in close contact. In East Africa, the study and analysis of languages has helped the historian to trace the origin, migration and settlement of communities. It has also helped historians to classify and group the people of East Africa and also to learn about their past relations and interactions as well as the common aspects of their social, political and economic organisations. Use of linguistics as a method of reconstructing the past may have the following limitations: i All kinds of information may not be possible to obtain because linguistics is only limited to the study of cultures, origins and migrations of communities. Ii Use of this method may lead to obtaining inaccurate information.


It has also helped historians to classify and group the people of East Africa and also to learn about their past relations and interactions as well as the common aspects of their social, political and economic organisations. Use of linguistics as a method of reconstructing the past may have the following limitations: i All kinds of information may not be possible to obtain because linguistics is only limited to the study of cultures, origins and migrations of communities. Ii Use of this method may lead to obtaining inaccurate information. Iii The method itself is expensive especially if one tries to use it to obtain information from far away communities. 5iv It is difficult to use this method to estimate the actual time events occurred. V This method requires use of highly skilled manpower. Vi Learning other peoples languages may be time consuming and laborious. E Anthropology This is mainly the study of existing social institutions and relationships. An anthropologist interacts with people to experience their way of life. In so doing he obtains information from the following elements of social organisation:- Cultures of people and their cultural values, forms of government, religious organisations and beliefs, systems of marriage, family relations, inheritance and also from the material mode of life such as farming, livestock keeping, fishing and industry. The anthropologists collect data from the people and use it to draw conclusions after analysing it properly. Limitations of using Anthropology as a method of reconstructing history: i It can be too expensive to use. Ii It is time consuming and tedious. Iii One may obtain inaccurate information if the method is not properly used. Iv This method may require very well trained personnel. V It is limited to few aspects of history which includes social aspects and material aspects. Vi One cannot use this method alone to obtain all information. So it is not wholly reliable. F Genetics It deals with the study of the methods in which certain characteristics are transmitted from parents to their offspring. This method has helped the historian to study the history of the domestication of animals and plants by early man. It has also helped him to understand how new varieties came into being. The method is mainly scientific and at the same time expensive. For one to use this method he must be well trained. For example one may be an experienced Botanist. The method may not also be used to extract information from all aspects of man s activities. It is not easy to obtain very accurate information when using genetics.


For example one may be an experienced Botanist. The method may not also be used to extract information from all aspects of man s activities. It is not easy to obtain very accurate information when using genetics. 6 In conclusion, out of all the above sources of information on history, written sources are the most reliable and most accurate. However, written sources may have the following limitations: a Though recorded, some information may be inaccurate, distorted or exaggerated. B Some written records are not readily available when required. For example some records may be available in archives which are far away from people who need the information. C Written records are useful and meaningful to people who are literate. D Some written records contain inadequate information. E Written information may contain biases. F Records preserved in foreign languages are difficult to interpret accurately and may call for experts to interpret. This may be expensive to achieve. G Written information can easily be misunderstood or misinterpreted. H People spend a lot of time when going through written records. I People find it expensive to buy books, newspapers and magazines in order to obtain written information. Why it is essential for people to study History It has become very necessary for people to study history so that people can develop a sense of belonging and also foster national pride. Also in order for them to understand and appreciate their past ways of life. This can help them to predict future events. To acquire the capacity for critical thinking or reasoning as they analyse historical information and to foster empathy or ability to understand how other people think and feel as well as their roles and positions in society. The study of history helps people understand the need of having a government and also to appreciate the cultures of other people and thereafter recognise the need of human interdependence. It helps them to attain a career and acquire employment in various professions such as Administration, teaching and business and in addition attain knowledge because history makes an individual develop interest and pleasure for reading and finding out new information. Lastly, it prepares people for life and the way they should react to future challenges. 7Why it is important to study Government. People study government to be able to understand and appreciate its system and the way it works. It enhances people to be aware of their rights and responsibilities and to understand the duties of leaders and their subjects and also how various societies have been administered over the years. The study of government enables them to understand the process of law making and the enforcement of law and also to understand issues concerning national budgets, revenue and expenditure.


People study government to be able to understand and appreciate its system and the way it works. It enhances people to be aware of their rights and responsibilities and to understand the duties of leaders and their subjects and also how various societies have been administered over the years. The study of government enables them to understand the process of law making and the enforcement of law and also to understand issues concerning national budgets, revenue and expenditure. It enables them to understand the roles of the Judiciary, the Legislature and the Executive and finally, it enables them to admire and appreciate careers such as administration and those of judges and lawyers. Review Questions. 1. What do you understand by the following: i History ii Government 2. Explain the methods historians use to obtain historical information. 3. Give the limitations of: i Oral tradition ii Archaeology iii Linguistics 4. Give reasons why written records are regarded as the best sources of historical information. 5. Explain why history and government is studied in Kenyan schools and some colleges. 6. What are the limitations of using written records? 9CHAPTER 2 THE EARLY MAN. How the early man originated. There are three theories which explain the origin of man. These are: a Creation theory This has its origin in the Bible The Old Testament . The book of Genesis says that God created man in his own image and then told him to multiply and fill the earth. Creation theory is also contained in the Koran which states that the first man named Adam was created by Allah. From Adam s rib, Allah created his wife, Hawa Eve . B The evolution theory Evolution is the process of gradual change in living organisms. Evolution theory was formulated by Charles Darwin in 1859. He recorded the theory in his book entitled The origin of species . According to Darwin, man developed from the Ape-like creatures that were his ancestors many thousands of years ago. He says these apelike creatures slowly changed over the ages to look more man-like than ape-like. C Traditional Mythical theory Every traditional community had an explanation of its origin. This explanation was passed from one generation to the other and kept on revolving for ages. For example the Kikuyu myth of origin says that Ngai God created Gikuyu the first man and then provided him with a wife they called Mumbi. The evolution of man and the stages of his evolution. Evolution is the process of gradual change.


For example the Kikuyu myth of origin says that Ngai God created Gikuyu the first man and then provided him with a wife they called Mumbi. The evolution of man and the stages of his evolution. Evolution is the process of gradual change. Many years ago man began to develop from ape-like creatures. At first he walked on all fours but later he used his hind limbs as legs and he stood upright. The early man first originated and lived in Africa. It is later when some of them spread into Europe, Asia and America. East Africa is very rich in archaeological sites, some of which are: Rusinga Island, Njoro river cave, Olorgesaille and Fort Ternan in Kenya. Also Kondora Irangi and Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. 10Archaeological findings show that man evolved through the following stages: Dryopithecus Africanus Proconsul The Dryopithecus skull was found in Africa by Mary Louis Leaky. His skull and limb bones were escavated on Rusinga Island and he resembled apes more than he resembled man. Dryopithecus had the following physical and cultural features. I He walked on all fours ii He had long teeth iii He ate flesh and fruits iv He used limbs as arms v He hunted and gathered. Dryopithecus existed about 20 25 million years ago and lived in the East African forest. Ramapithecus Kenya pithecus : Dr. Leakey escavated these fossils at Fort Ternan near Kericho Ramapithecus had the following physical and cultural features: i He had massive jaws ii He had grinding teeth iii He resembled apes more than man iv He had smaller canines than those of apes. Ramapithecus existed in the East African grasslands 12 to 15 million years ago. Australopithecus Zinjanthropus : Their fossils were first escavated in South Africa Later fossils of these creatures were found at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and they were closer to modern man. These hominids had the following physical and cultural features. -. They had grinding teeth - Their bodies were hairy - They were short - They had low forehead and deep set eyes. -. They had a small brain capacity which was a third of that of modern man. -. They walked in upright posture.


- They had grinding teeth - Their bodies were hairy - They were short - They had low forehead and deep set eyes. -. They had a small brain capacity which was a third of that of modern man. -. They walked in upright posture. -. They relied on fingers to acquire food. -. They ate flesh and fruits. -. They made and used simple stone tools. 11- They learnt that they could use stone tools for defence against other animals. -. They hunted and gathered. Australopithecines were living in Africa about 2 to 7 million years ago and existed in several species such as Australopithecus Afarensis, Australopithecus Africanus, Australopithecus Robustus and Australopithecus Boisei who was related to robustus. Homo Habilis The skull of Homo Habilis was escavated at Olduvai gorge in Tanzania and at Kobi Fora near lake Turkana Homo Habilis means handy man or man with ability or practical man . Man at this evolution stage had the following cultural and physical features: i He used his hands to grasp objects. Ii He had a large brain capacity 680cc iii He made useful tools from stones and sticks. Iv He could control his hands by use of his brain. V He hunted and gathered. Vi He resembled man more than apes. He is therefore regarded as a true ancestor of man. Vii He communicated through elementary language and lived in Africa about one and half million years ago. Homo Erectus Homo Erectus is also referred to as upright man . He was more man-like than Ape-like. His remains were escavated in Ethiopia. The following were his physical and cultural features: i He had upright walking posture. Ii He was more intelligent than the earlier man like apes. Iii He had a higher brain capacity 1000 cc . Iv He was able to make stone and bone weapons. He made Acheulian tools using Levallois technique of organising flakes into small pieces. V He learnt how to make fire. Vi He developed speech. Vii He painted pictures on the walls of his cave dwellings. Viii He hunted and gathered. Ix Home erectus existed during the middle stone age period. 12Rhodesian man His skull was escavated in Zambia, formerly known as Northern Rhodesia.


Viii He hunted and gathered. Ix Home erectus existed during the middle stone age period. 12Rhodesian man His skull was escavated in Zambia, formerly known as Northern Rhodesia. He was closer to the modern man than Homo erectus. The following were his physical and cultural features: i He walked with long strides. Ii He made tools made of stone. Iii He had a well developed brain almost the size of that of modern man. Iv He walked on two legs and he had an upright posture although his forehead was sloping backward. V He hunted and gathered. Neanderthal man He was closer to the modern man than the Rhodesian man. His fossils were escavated in Neander valley in Germany and in several other sites in Europe. The following were his physical and cultural features: i He hunted and gathered. Ii He made tools and weapons from stone. Iii He walked in an upright posture. Iv He was heavily built. V His brain capacity was high and in some cases larger than that of modern man. Vi He fed on meat from the wild animals he hunted. Cro-Magnon His fossils were found in Western Europe and he was taller than modern man. He existed between 10,000 to 50,000 years ago. He had the following physical and cultural features: i He made and used delicate microlithic tools, which were well refined. Ii He hunted and gathered. Iii He lived in caves. Iv He used fire to warm himself and roast meat. V He painted pictures on the walls of caves. Vi His eye-brow range was thicker than that of modern man. Cro-Magnon lived during the Middle Stone age period and he used fire to cook. The tools he used were reasonably improved. The caves he lived in were painted. 13Homo Sapiens Homo Sapiens implies thinking man or intelligent man . He used advanced Acheulian tools and also manufactured other better tools such as daggers, side scrapers and chisels. Homo sapiens also learnt to make better tools by use of Levallois technique and later developed the microlith industry. He existed during the New Stone age. The following were the physical and cultural features of man during Homo Sapiens stage: a He tamed and kept livestock. B He cultivated. C He buried the dead. D He settled in villages.


B He cultivated. C He buried the dead. D He settled in villages. E He began fishing by use of bone harpoons. F He developed government. G He started religion. H He began simple industry which made beads out of seeds, bones and egg shells and also pottery, basketry and painting. I He made better clothes from skins by knitting them with bone needles. J He built huts made of thatch and mud. Things which enable the archaeologists to study the origin of man. The study of early man has not been easy but inorder to facilitate it the archaeologists have tried to use the tools early man used for example the Acheulian tools such as scrapers, hand axe, arrow heads, choppers, spear heads and Microliths tools such as fishing harpoons, bone needles, arrow heads, sickles and blades. They have also used remains of garments or skin clothes, the weapons early man used, the remains of beads, the shelter of the early man, grains and food remains and also the cave paintings or art work as well as traces of the remains of fire e.g. charcoal and carbonised seeds. By use of all these the archaeologist has been able to make useful conclusions on man s origin and his evolution. 14Uses of the early Archeulian tools Archeulian tools were made from several materials. They were sharper than those used before. Examples of these types of tools were arrow-heads, axes and spear-heads. Archaeulian tools were used for digging roots, skinning animals, killing animals, grinding or pounding vegetables, scrapping animal skins and for breaking the bones of animals. Methods used when dating fossils by the archaeologists Carbon 14 tests Archaeologists use this to determine the amount of Carbon 14 in an object because the older the remains, the less carbon 14 they have. Potassium Argon test - This is mainly used to date the volcanic ash and also the fossils which may be escavated in the volcanic rocks. It can only be used to date artefacts which are old about 300,000 years and above . Paleomagnetic dating method This method is used to date fossils upto 10,000 years of age. Stratigraphy - It is used to date fossils lying between layers of sedimentary rocks. Some notable archaeologists in E. Africa who used some of these methods to date fossils were Dr.


Stratigraphy - It is used to date fossils lying between layers of sedimentary rocks. Some notable archaeologists in E. Africa who used some of these methods to date fossils were Dr. Leakey, Dr. Freeman, Dr. Posnansky, Mr. Chittick, and Mr. Kirkman. Why early man made tools and weapons - For defence against other wild animals - For hunting and gathering for example animals and fruits respectively - For cultivating especially during the new stone age when he domesticated plants - For exchanging with other items. -. Due to his curiosity to find out things. The items early man used for making tools and weapons he used were stone, Bone, Horn, Flint, Wood and sticks. These were used to make a wide range of items which early man became specialised in. 15The earliest industries established by early man were tool making, weapon making, cloth making, pottery, weaving and basketry. Tools and weapons were made in the industries collectively called the Oldowan Industries, Lupemban industries, the Acheulian industries, the Still Bay Industries, the Mousterian Industries and the Microliths industries. The Oldowan tools included choppers and flakes. The Acheulian tools included the hand-axes, spear heads, arrow-heads, cleavers, knives, daggers and scrappers. Early men preparing a pit trap. The divisions of the culture of the early man and his cultural practices and economic practices The divisions of the culture of the early man are: a The Old Stone Age sometimes referred to as Early Stone Age or Lower Palaeolithic. B The Middle Stone Age sometimes referred to as Middle Palaeolithic. C The New Stone Age sometimes referred to as the late stone age or upper Palaeolithic. 16 a The old stone age: Culture and economic practices Man lived in small groups. He slept on trees and caves for fear of attack by wild animals. He walked naked and his body was covered with hair. Early man ate raw meat, birds, eggs and insects. He made simple stone tools such as hand axes and flakes using levallois technique. Finally, he hunted wild animals and gathered fruits and roots for food. B The middle stone age: Culture and economic practices Man lived in caves. He discovered fire and lit it on the doors of caves to scare away wild animals. Man also began making and wearing clothes made of skins. He also began cooking food and roasting meat and roots.


He discovered fire and lit it on the doors of caves to scare away wild animals. Man also began making and wearing clothes made of skins. He also began cooking food and roasting meat and roots. Early man started trapping animals using pits and painting pictures of animals he hunted on the walls of caves. His language developed and finally he improved the quality of the tools he made by making them smaller, lighter, sharper, thinner and more convenient to use. Stone tools early man made. 17The Middle Stone Age men painting pictures on rocks18Why the discovery of fire was useful to early man This discovery was important for the following reasons: 1. Man warmed himself with it when it was cold. 2. He used it to cook and therefore soften his food as well as remove poison from vegetables. 3. He used it to light the caves where he spent the nights. 4. Man used it to scare wild animals which posed a threat to him. 5. He used fire to harden the tips of the tools he used such as spears and arrows. 6. Fire assisted man when hunting because he lit it to burn bushes where animals were hiding and they escaped towards swamps and caves where he would easily kill them. 7. He used fire to clear bushes close to his cave dwellings. 8. Man later used fire to harden pots made of clay. 9. The Homo Sapiens used it to clear bushes for cultivation. 10. It improved mans food by improving flavour, improving nutrition, removing poison, softening food and cooking food. C The New Stone Age: Culture and economic practices The new Stone Age is sometimes referred to as the Upper Paleolithic period. In this period man made better microlith tools such as blades and arrow-heads. He then made composite tools such as fish harpoons and bone needles. Man established permanent settlements and he began leading a settled life. Man then began decorating his body by use of red ochre, beads and bangles made of eggshells. He also began simple industry which included weaving, pottery, basketry and spinning. Man developed religion and began performing religious rites and ceremonies to influence natural forces like drought, death, earthquakes and rain. He developed governmental institutions, leading to establishment of early governments. Man began fishing using harpoons. He made better shelter such as houses made of mud and thatch. He then domesticated animals such as cats, dogs, sheep, cows, goats and chicken and finally, he began cultivating and this was the beginning of farming.


Man began fishing using harpoons. He made better shelter such as houses made of mud and thatch. He then domesticated animals such as cats, dogs, sheep, cows, goats and chicken and finally, he began cultivating and this was the beginning of farming. 19The changes early man experienced during his evolution. The changes from early man to modern man took a very long period. Each of the changes man experienced was very important because it was the basis of his future life. It is due to these changes that modern man is at the level he is today. Early man experienced the following important changes which helped in modernising his culture and way of life. -. Increase in brain capacity. -. Development of upright posture. -. Walking on two legs instead of walking on all fours. -. Holding objects by use of front limbs hands . -. Continuous improvement of tools and weapons. -. He discovered fire. -. He learnt to domesticate animals and plants. This was the beginning of agriculture. -. He improved his shelter as time went on. -. He established religion. -. He formed government. -. He started simple industry such as weaving, pottery and basketry. -. He began weaving clothes made of skins. All the above changes helped early man to evolve to the modern man who is capable of making many inventions. Review Questions. 1. Identify the theories that explain the origin of human beings. 2. Why is Africa regarded to as the home of early man? 3. Discuss the economic and cultural activities which took place during the following: i Old Stone Age ii Middle Stone Age iii Late Stone Age 4. How was fire used during the Middle Stone Age? 5. Discuss the cultural and economic practices of early man during the following evolution stages: i Homo Habilis ii Homo erectus iii Homo Sapiens 6. Draw a map of East Africa and indicate all the archaeological sites and then describe the pattern of the distribution of these sites. 20CHAPTER 3. DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Early Agriculture. Early agriculture developed when man domesticated animals such as sheep, cows and goats, and when he started growing crops like wheat, barley, figs and vegetables. At first early man was mainly engaged in hunting and gathering. Later man accidentally realised that animals and plants could be domesticated and he could easily obtain food even when weather conditions were unfavourable. Man took control of the animals which were friendly and he had to feed them. Man therefore put up permanent settlements.


C Fertile soils silt which were deposited along riverbanks. D Establishment of permanent settlements. E Invention of writing which enabled farmers to keep records. The impact of the development of the early agriculture in Mesopotamia Early agriculture in Mesopotamia led to specialisation on other activities such as pottery and weaving. It led to division of labour. Some people became cultivators while others became livestock keepers. It also led to the introduction of better farming tools and increase in food production. A class of wealthy people emerged. It contributed to the emergence of urban centres along the Euphrates and Tiger valleys. There were improved methods of cultivation for example use of the plough. It led to increased trade and also encouraged development of cottage industries. Finally, population increased as a result of increase in food production. 23Crops which were domesticated along Tigris and Euphrates River valley in Mesopotamia The crops which were domesticated were wheat, barley, figs, olives, vegetables and vines. The first crops to be domesticated were wheat and barley. The cultivation of barley and wheat spread to Egypt later. The invention of the ox-drawn plough helped in the cultivation of large areas of land while the invention of the seed drill made the planting of seeds to be easy. The Agrarian Revolution in Britain. Agrarian Revolution is the change in methods of cultivation and livestock rearing agriculture . Britain was the first country to experience Agrarian Revolution. This change in Britain was brought mainly by the invention and use of machines. The Agrarian Revolution was also speeded by use of farm inputs for example fertilizers, pesticides and curatives for livestock diseases. This change reduced manual labour in farms in Britain. However, food production increased. The agricultural practices in Britain before the Agrarian Revolution were:- i Shifting cultivation land was cultivated for a number of years until the soil got exhausted. It was then abandoned and the owner went to look for another virgin land. Ii Small scale farming crops were planted on small plots and there was little harvest. Iii Subsistence farming peasant farming the crops grown were for human consumption and not for sale. Iv Broadcasting scattering of seeds v Strip system or open field system farmland was split into small plots called strips. Vi Inter cropping a number of different crops were planted on the same plot at the same time.


Iii Subsistence farming peasant farming the crops grown were for human consumption and not for sale. Iv Broadcasting scattering of seeds v Strip system or open field system farmland was split into small plots called strips. Vi Inter cropping a number of different crops were planted on the same plot at the same time. Vii Use of simple agricultural implements e.g. hoes and digging sticks It is important to note that the open field system hindered full utilisation of land because the exhausted land was left to fallow. The road carts used and the footpaths used by people wasted a lot of land. 24There was time wastage as people travelled long distances to go and work in their scattered strips. It was also not possible to use machines to prepare the small strips. Livestock rearing was discouraged due to constant disease infections and shortage of cattle feeds during winter. The factors, which lead to the Agrarian Revolution in Britain The Agrarian Revolution in Britain was caused by increase in human population which led to high demand for food. The development of new farming tools and machinery for example threshing machines and the seed drill led to enlargement of farms. Industrial Revolution contributed because industrialisation provided the agricultural sector with inputs and markets. Replacement of open field system by enclosure system enabled farmers to improve their property without being hindered by neighbours. Development of new methods of breeding livestock increased output while the development of agricultural research contributed to improved soils and crop yields. Development of scientific methods such as food preservation by means of canning and refrigeration encouraged farmers to increase production. Finally, land consolidation enabled land to be properly utilised because it increased farm sizes and therefore encouraged use of machines. The Agricultural changes which occurred in Britain during the Agrarian Revolution The high demand for food in Britain brought about the following agricultural changes: i Land was consolidated and people were forced to fence it. Ii New methods of farming for example crop rotation, cross-breeding, use of farming machines and use of fertilisers and pesticides were introduced. Iii New crops like potatoes were introduced. Iv A variety of farm tools were invented for example seed-drills ploughs and threshing machines. V The fallow system of farming was discouraged. Vi The poor sold their land to the rich and they were left with no farmland. 25The effects of Agrarian Revolution in Britain 1.


V The fallow system of farming was discouraged. Vi The poor sold their land to the rich and they were left with no farmland. 25The effects of Agrarian Revolution in Britain 1. Food production increased due to the enclosure system, better farming methods and use of machines and this gave rise to a rapid increase in population. 2. It also led to expansion of local and international trade due to increase in agricultural surpluses. 3. The use of new improved farming methods led to food security in Britain. 4. There was diversification of agriculture as a result of introduction of new crops such as potatoes and citrus fruits. 5. The agricultural research findings led to the development of exotic livestock breeds like Friesian and better farming methods such as crop rotation and use of fertilizers. 6. There was improved standards of living and high life expectancy due to production of enough food. 7. The price of the land in Britain went up due to Agrarian Revolution. 8. It contributed to the improvement of transport and communication facilities. 9. It also contributed to the emigration of Britons abroad for example to U.S.A. and South Africa. 10. Agrarian Revolution provided the newly established industries with raw materials and labour. 11. The poor were displaced by the rich leading to rural-urban migration and hence expansion of urban centres. 12. Establishment of large scale farming in Britain replaced subsistence farming. 13. Agrarian Revolution in Britain gave rise to class. There was a class of rich landlords and a class of the poor land less people. 26 The Agrarian Revolution in U.S.A. before 18th Century. The British citizens who were displaced after the introduction of the enclosure system in Britain migrated to the USA and introduced new methods of farming. The immigrants introduced different varieties of crops and animal breeds from Europe. They used slave labour in their farms to work in the cotton, tobacco and maize plantations. The development of agriculture in USA before 1800 was facilitated by the following factors: i The climate of U.S.A. was suitable for agriculture. Farmers planted cotton, tobacco, wheat, and maize and also kept livestock. Ii Europeans who migrated into U.S.A. led to population increase and high demand for food. At first they relied on food from Britain. Iii A large number of enterprising Europeans settled in U.S.A. and tried to make a living through agriculture.


At first they relied on food from Britain. Iii A large number of enterprising Europeans settled in U.S.A. and tried to make a living through agriculture. Iv Availability of indigenous crops like yams and beans contributed to the development of agriculture in U.S.A. v Rivers in U.S.A. such as river Colorado, Sacramento and Arkansas provided water for irrigation. Vi Europeans emigrants introduced new methods of farming in U.S.A. such as crop rotation, use of fertilizers and inter breeding. Vii Introduction of new crops promoted development of agriculture. Viii There existed suitable soils for different types of crops. Ix Slave labour was available to work in the European farms in U.S.A. The Agricultural practices in U.S.A. before the Agrarian Revolution. The indigenous inhabitants of USA were the Red Indians. They were subsistence farmers who grew crops such as cotton, yams, beans, potatoes, cassava, tobacco and maize. When the British immigrants arrived in USA they found that the Red Indians were cultivating and applying the following agricultural practices: - Shifting cultivation - Small scale farming - Broadcasting of seeds - Use of simple agricultural implements - Inter-cropping. 27 The British immigrants then introduced the new methods of farming which included plantation farming which was a form of large-scale farming. The factors that led to the Agrarian Revolution in U.S.A. - The introduction of the enclosure system in Britain forced the landless to migrate to various parts of USA. Ownership of private land was legalised and this helped to promote agriculture. -. The introduction of slave labour ensured adequate supply of labour for farming. -. Farming land was available for cultivating crops such as wheat, tobacco and cotton. Wasteland was also reclaimed. -. The increased demand for agricultural raw materials by Europeans for use in their industries encouraged development and expansion of agriculture. The textile industries in Britain for example demanded cotton from USA. -. The USA government recognised individual land ownership. This encouraged settler farming. Farmers were also supported by the government by being provided with aid which enabled them to turn to large scale farming. -. The land was suitable for different crops such as tobacco, maize, cotton and wheat. -. The cotton gin was invented in 1793 by Eli Whitney. This led to increase in cotton production especially in southern USA because it separated seeds from fibre, made threads and weaved cloth. -. Improved transport and communication led to increase in crop production because the produce reached the market in time.


- The cotton gin was invented in 1793 by Eli Whitney. This led to increase in cotton production especially in southern USA because it separated seeds from fibre, made threads and weaved cloth. -. Improved transport and communication led to increase in crop production because the produce reached the market in time. -. The mechanisation of agriculture encouraged establishment of big plantations. For example John Deere invented the steel plough therefore easing cultivation. -. Agricultural research facilitated the Agrarian Revolution in USA because new varieties were introduced in the area of livestock and crop production. -. Introduction of new methods of food preservation such as canning and refrigeration encouraged farmers to increase yields because perishable foods could be preserved in the area and be exported. -. Increase in population created demand for food which contributed to increase in food production and therefore expansion of agriculture to satisfy the internal and external market. -. The introduction of new methods of controlling animal and plant diseases led to increased production. 28- The division of USA into farming zones enabled crops to be grown where the climate was favourable for each particular crop. Farmers established the corn belt, the cotton belt, the wheat belt and livestock zones. The effects of the Agrarian Revolution in USA. As food production increased there was also increase in population. Agrarian Revolution in USA encouraged and promoted export trade with agricultural products. It encouraged and accelerated the trans-atlantic slave trade in a bid to acquire labour for use in plantations. It also contributed to growth of industries in Europe hence industrial revolution because it provided Europe with raw material for her industries. New and better farming methods such as crop rotation, use of fertilizers and planting in rows were introduced. Transport and communication was improved through establishment of roads, railways and water transport. Improved seeds and livestock breeds were introduced giving rise to improved agricultural output. The standard of living of the people of USA was improved. Scientific research was highly encouraged in order to come up with better livestock breeds. Many parts of USA were opened up for farming and for settlements. There was migration of people from rural areas to urban areas leading to expansion of towns. There was an increase in food production and diversification of agriculture through introduction of new crop and animal breeds. Agrarian Revolution in USA encouraged scientific inventions and discoveries such as the invention of the steel plough and the refrigeration facilities. It encouraged many Europeans to come and settle in USA because land was getting scarce in Europe and many Europeans were becoming landless. Food Situation in Africa and The Rest of the Third World.


Agrarian Revolution in USA encouraged scientific inventions and discoveries such as the invention of the steel plough and the refrigeration facilities. It encouraged many Europeans to come and settle in USA because land was getting scarce in Europe and many Europeans were becoming landless. Food Situation in Africa and The Rest of the Third World. The term Third World refers to the developing countries in Africa, South America and Asia. Majority of the third world countries were formerly under colonial rule. Developing countries are not as industrialised as the developed countries such as Japan, Britain and USA. Almost all developing countries suffer from acute food shortages. 29Why many countries in Africa, Asia and South America suffer from acute food shortage 1. There are unreliable climatic conditions for example some countries experience too much rain or too little rain resulting to floods and drought. For example India has experienced floods several times while African countries lying along the Sahara desert experience drought. Problems of floods in Africa. 2. There is a rapid population growth. Birth rate has increased. This has outstripped the rate of agricultural production therefore making it difficult for the country to produce enough food for the ever growing population. 3. Africans in particular have placed more emphasis on cash crop production ignoring the importance of subsistence crops. They have even ignored planting drought resistant crops such as cassava, arrow roots, yams and sweet potatoes. 4. Inadequate transport and communication facilities hinder marketing of agricultural products and even distribution of food. 5. Political instability brought about by civil strife hinders the development of agriculture. This has been experienced in Uganda, Sudan, Somalia and Democratic Republic of Congo. 30 Rebels preparing for a strike. 6. Poor storage facilities as well as shortage of storage facilities lead to food wastage. A lot of grains are destroyed by weevils and rats. 7. Importation of food and dependence on foreign food aid hinder those who strive to improve the agricultural output. 8. Scarcity of capital makes it difficult for developing countries to mechanise their agricultural sector. Farmers are also unable to purchase farm inputs such as fertilizers and chemicals for controlling pests. 9. Poor farming methods such as inter-cropping result to low agricultural output. Also many farmers do not apply fertilizers on their farms. As a result they harvest very little. 10. Natural calamities such as locust and army worm invasion, hailstones and also wild animals such as monkeys reduce yields. 11.


10. Natural calamities such as locust and army worm invasion, hailstones and also wild animals such as monkeys reduce yields. 11. Land tenure system affect food production especially where a few people are land owners and yet they don t make it into full use. 12. The high rate of poverty in many countries make people to experience food shortage even when food is available elsewhere because they cannot be able to buy it. 13. Negative attitudes towards certain foodstuffs have made people to abandon growing these crops. For example in some areas of Kenya Cassava is associated with people who are poor. The rich will not grow it. 14. Poor economic planning and poor marketing policies contribute to acute food shortages. 3115. Sometimes hoarding and smuggling of food lead to acute shortages. This is because all the food is taken away and the country is left in short of food. 16. Yields have also been affected by diseases and pests which affect crops. Livestock diseases and pests also kill many farm animals. 17. There has been an acute shortage of labour due to rural urban migration of people. This has also reduced yields. 18. HIV AIDS has caused death and also weakened many able bodied productive people who could engage in farming. Ways countries with food problems have attempted to solve them. Countries with food shortages have tried to improve soil fertility through crop-rotation, cross breeding and through use of chemical fertilizers. Research stations have been established to improve food production. Large scale and small-scale irrigation schemes have been established and idle land is being reclaimed. Swamps have been drained and crop growing has been established. Diversified agriculture is being encouraged to replace the monoculture economy. Farmers are provided with financial assistance in form of loans. Marketing facilities have been improved to encourage disposal of surplus food while farmers have been motivated through raising of the prices of food crops from time to time. Through research, chemicals to control pests and plant diseases have been introduced. Many countries are engaged on consolidating land to encourage individual land tenure. Farmers are from time to time encouraged to grow draught resistant crops such as yams, sweet potatoes, onions and cassava. At the same time extension services have been provided to farmers. The African, Asian and South America leaders as well as the international community members are encouraging political stability in order to encourage investment in agriculture and increase in agricultural yields. Finally, transport and communication is being improved through establishment of rural access roads to enable transportation of foodstuffs. The face of hunger in Africa.


The African, Asian and South America leaders as well as the international community members are encouraging political stability in order to encourage investment in agriculture and increase in agricultural yields. Finally, transport and communication is being improved through establishment of rural access roads to enable transportation of foodstuffs. The face of hunger in Africa. 32 The impact of acute food shortages in Africa. I Death rate has increased especially in famine stricken areas. Ii Dependency on imported food has increased. Iii Food prices rise sharply due to high demands and shortages. Iv Famine stricken people blame their government when they fail to get relief food. This attitude may cause civil unrest and national political instability. V Famine causes people to wonder from place to place looking for food leading to social interactions especially by people who meet in the market places. Vi There is a very high degree of dependency on foreign aid and grants from donor countries. Vii There is migration of people from drought and famine striken areas to town and to other places where food can be obtained. 33viii There are rapid outbreaks of deficiency diseases. Ix It encourages increase in crime as social evils such robbery and prostitution. X Acute food shortages breed hatred between those who are rich and the poor. Xi In areas with acute food shortages, malnutrition has retarded normal growth of children and caused high child mortality. Review Questions. 1. What factors enabled early agriculture to develop? 2. Describe the development of the early agriculture in Egypt and Mesopotamia. 3. What were the benefits of the domestication of animals and plants to the early man? 4. Identify the impact of the development of early agriculture in Egypt and Mesopotamia. 5. How did the Agrarian Revolution in Britain contribute to the Agrarian Revolution in USA? 6. A Explain the causes of food shortages in the developing countries. B How have the governments concerned tried to rectify the problems of food shortages in the developing countries? 34CHAPTER 4. THE PEOPLES OF KENYA UP TO THE 19TH CENTURY. Kenya communities can be classified into three linguistic groups namely the Bantu, the Nilotes and the Cushites. They migrated into Kenya and came into contact with the earliest inhabitants who were of the Khoisan stock. Communities of Kenya. 35Classification of Kenya communities. A Bantu The term Bantus refers to people who speak related languages.


Communities of Kenya. 35Classification of Kenya communities. A Bantu The term Bantus refers to people who speak related languages. These people call Man Mtu and their origin is Zaire formerly known as Congo . From their original homeland, they migrated slowly eastwards until they reached and settled in Kenya. The Bantu may be split into two categories: i The Eastern Kenya Bantu This category includes the Akamba, Kikuyu, Ameru, Embu, Taita, Giriama, Kombe, Chonyi, Digo, Rabai, Jibana, Pokomo, Duruma, Kauma and Ribe. From Congo forest they reached Mt. Kilimanjaro and moved to Taita hills where they dispersed in different directions. Those who went and settled at Shungwaya were later forced to migrate into the interior of Kenya following the course of river Tana by the Oromo. A few such as the Mijikenda were left at the Coast. Ii The Western Kenya Bantu This category includes the Abagusii, Abaluhyia, Abakuria, Abasuba and the Abakhene. This group of people settled in western Kenya. Some like the Abagusii entered Kenya from Uganda. B Nilotes The Nilotes migrated into Kenya from Sudan but they passed through Uganda. They may be split into three categories: i The River-Lake Nilotes This category includes the Luo who live on the shores of Lake Victoria. They migrated from south-eastern Sudan in the Bahrar el -Ghazal region and entered Uganda. Later they left Uganda and moved into Kenya. Ii The Plain Nilotes This category includes Samburu, Maasai, Karamojong, Teso and Turkana. They entered Kenya from Southern Ethiopia and passed along the shores of Lake Turkana. Iii The Highland Nilotes This category includes the Nandi, Keiyo, Tugen, Marakwet and Kipsigis. They migrated from North-West of Lake Turkana in Ethiopia. 36c Cushites The Cushites entered Kenya from the North Eastern direction. They were coming from the horn of Africa which was their original homeland. The Cushites may be split into two categories: i The Eastern Cushites This category includes the Oromo, Somali, Rendile, Gabbra, Shangilla and Burji.


36c Cushites The Cushites entered Kenya from the North Eastern direction. They were coming from the horn of Africa which was their original homeland. The Cushites may be split into two categories: i The Eastern Cushites This category includes the Oromo, Somali, Rendile, Gabbra, Shangilla and Burji. Ii The Southern Cushites These migrated into Kenya from the Ethiopian Highlands. They went southwards and settled between Kenya and Northern Tanzania. This category includes the Sanye, Dahallo and Boni living at the mouth of River Tana. The causes and effects of the migration of the Bantu communities e.g. Kikuyu, Kamba, Meru and the Mijikenda a Causes of migration - Over population - Civil wars or internal wars - External attacks - Need to move for adventure - Need for better pastures for their livestock - Draught and famine - Need for cultivable land - Outbreaks of diseases or epidemics - Knowledge of iron smelting and making of superior iron weapons encouraged the Bantu people to migrate b Effects of migration There was assimilation of communities the Bantu people came across e.g. the Southern Cushites were assimilated by the Bantu who came into contact with them. The Kikuyu assimilated the Athi, Dorobo and Gumba. Intermarriages with other communities occurred. For instance, the Kikuyu intermarried with the Kamba and Maasai. New political institutions developed for instance the institution of Muthamaki among the Kikuyu. Bantu communities borrowed the cultural practices of the people they came across. The Kikuyu for example borrowed the cultural practices like circumcision of the Gumba and the Athi. They also borrowed the age-set system. 37Migration accelerated wars with other communities. Some communities were displaced after being conquered and made to disperse. The Bantu communities interacted with people of other linguistic groups through trade, raids and marriages. There was enrichment of language through word borrowing. Some Bantu communities were forced to change their economic way of life for example to change from cultivators to pastoralists. Why the Nilotic communities migrated from the Sudan into Kenya. -. Due to epidemics which attacked people and animals. -. Due to drought and famine. -. Due to internal or civil wars. -. Due to external attacks - Due to love for adventure - Due to need to look for pastures for their animals.


- Due to drought and famine. -. Due to internal or civil wars. -. Due to external attacks - Due to love for adventure - Due to need to look for pastures for their animals. -. Due to over population - Due to the need to look for cultivable land by communities who farmed. -. Due to family and clan quarrels. The effects of the migration of the Nilotes a There was assimilation of communities. B There was change in the economic activities of some communities for example the Luo became fishermen. C There were inter marriages with other communities especially their neighbours for example the Abagusii and the Abaluhyia. D There was interaction with communities the Nilotes came across. E There was conquest and displacement of some communities. F Wars increased between communities. G There was borrowing of cultural practices by the people who came into contact with the Nilotes. H Some communities developed new political institutions for example Oloiboni by the Maasai and the institution of Orkoyiot by the Nandi. I There was enrichment of language through word borrowing. 38 Migration and settlement of the people of Kenya. Reasons for the migration of the Cushites. The reasons why the Cushites migrated were need for pastures for their livestock, search for fertile land for cultivation, love for adventure, outbreak of diseases, external attacks, internal wars and clan feuds, over population and natural calamities such as drought and famine. The effects of the migration of the Cushites. The Cushites came into contact with other communities and there was cultural exchange. There was language enrichment as Cushites interacted with others. They assimilated other weaker communities. There was population increase after settling in better lands. Also there was expansion of trade. There was interaction through trade, intermarriage and wars. The wars increased as the Cushites tried to acquire better pastures for their livestock. The Cushites for example the Oromo conquered and displaced the communities they came across in the process of migration. For instance, they dispersed the Bantu Communities who had settled at Shungwaya. 39Review Questions. 1. How did the Kenya communities interact during their migrations and settlements? 2. Describe the migration of the: a Cushites b Bantu c Nilotes 3. Identify the impact of the migrations of the following: a Bantu b Nilotes c Cushites 4.


2. Describe the migration of the: a Cushites b Bantu c Nilotes 3. Identify the impact of the migrations of the following: a Bantu b Nilotes c Cushites 4. Describe the effects of the interactions of the Agikuyu and the people they came into contact with during migration. 5. Describe the course and effects of the migration of the Luo. 6. Why did the Bantu migrate from Shungwaya? 40CHAPTER 5. SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF KENYAN SOCIETIES IN THE 19TH CENTURY. The people of Kenya in the 19th century were of different linguistic groups comprising the Bantu, the Nilotes and the Cushites. The environment played a great role in determining their social, economic and political aspects which varied from one ethnic group to the other. The Social, Economic and political organisation of the Agikuyu in the 19th century Social organisation The Kikuyu were organised into clans. There were nine clans. Some of them were Anjiru, Ambui, Acera, Angari, Angeci and Airimu. The family was an important social political unit because it acted as the basis of the Kikuyu community. Above the family was the mbari or sub-clan under Muramati or caretaker. The Kikuyu had age set which was acquired from the Gumba. They conducted birth and marriage ceremony. Men cleared the land, looked after the live stock and milked while women cultivated. The Kikuyu initiated circumcised boys and girls to adult hood. They worshiped a God they called Ngai who lived on Mount Kenya Kirinyaga . The Kikuyu offered sacrifices to their God for thanks giving in sacred places. They slaughtered goats and sheep as sacrifice. They had medicinemen, rain makers and prophets. A medicineman was known as Mundu Mugo and he cured diseases. They also believed in ancestral spirits. Finally they paid dowry in form of cattle, sheep and goats. Economic Organisation The Agikuyu grew crops such as millet, sorghum, arrow roots and yams. They traded with their neighbours such as the Maasai and the Akamba.


Finally they paid dowry in form of cattle, sheep and goats. Economic Organisation The Agikuyu grew crops such as millet, sorghum, arrow roots and yams. They traded with their neighbours such as the Maasai and the Akamba. They smelted iron for making hoes and axes and also weaved and practiced basketry as well as pottery. The Agikuyu hunted and gathered to substitute their diet. They kept beehives and harvested honey. Lastly, they kept livestock for example cattle, sheep and goats. 41Political Organisation: The Kikuyu were organised into clans-each made up of sub-clans called Mbari . They were politically organised into age set systems composed of boys who were initiated. The Kikuyu community was decentralised and it had the institution of the Muramati clan leader . Muramati co-ordinated all the activities of the sub-clan. There were warriors who defended the community. The Kikuyu had a council of elders KIAMA which maintained law and order and made final decisions. It presided over religious functions. Cases were handled by Kiama composed of individual who acted as judges. Kikuyu and Meru settlements. The Social, Economic and Political organisation of the Ameru in the 19th century Social organisation. The Ameru who comprised the Chuka, Tharaka, Mwimbi, Muthambi, Imenti, Tigania and Igembe were organised into clans. The family was an important social institution. They were also organised into age-set systems Nthuke Irua comprising of age mates. 42The Ameru conducted initiation ceremonies in form of circumcision. Both Girls and boys were circumcised. They worshiped God under the sacred Fig Mugumo trees and they also performed sacrifices to their God. The Ameru had medicinemen, rainmakers, fortune-tellers and prophets. They were ruled by a council of elders who also presided over religious ceremonies. Economic organisation. The Ameru grew crops such as millet and sorghum. They kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats and they hunted wild animals and gathered roots and fruits. Some Ameru traded with their neighbours such as the Akamba, Mbere and Embu.


The Ameru grew crops such as millet and sorghum. They kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats and they hunted wild animals and gathered roots and fruits. Some Ameru traded with their neighbours such as the Akamba, Mbere and Embu. They were engaged in traditional industries such as pottery, basketry, weaving, cloth making and iron smelting which enabled them to make knives, spears, arrow heads and iron hoes. Finally, they kept beehives and harvested honey. Political organisation. They were ruled by councils of elders called Njuri Nceke and they were organised into clans made up of several families which were related. There were age-set systems comprised of men who had been initiated into adult hood. There were warriors composed of strong circumcised men who defended the community in times of problems. The Ameru were decentralised as there were different independent groups such as the Tharaka, Tigania, Mwimbi, Imenti, Igembe, Chuka, Igoji and Muthambi. Religious leaders played an important role in the administration of the Ameru and also foretold the future. The social, economic and political organisation of the Akamba in the 19th Century. Social organisation The Akamba were organised into clans made up of several related families. They had age-groups and age-set system. They practiced circumcision as an initiation rite. They believed in witchcraft and had medicinemen and diviners. The Akamba conducted traditional ceremonies. Finally, they worshipped God and performed sacrifices to him. 43Economic organisation Some Akamba practiced crop cultivation and planted sorghum, millet, potatoes and beans while others kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats. The Akamba were skilled hunters and they also gathered fruits and roots to substitute their diet. They traded with the Kikuyu, Taita, Mijikenda and later with the coastal people. The Akamba sold honey, arrow poison and tobacco to them while they bought beads and cloth from the coast and also ivory and foodstuff from the interior communities like the Samburu and Mbeere respectively. They smelted iron and made spears, arrow-heads, hoes, knives, cattle bells and jingles. The Akamba were efficient beekeepers and they harvested a lot of honey. They were engaged in traditional industries where they manufactured pots, baskets, mats, stools and shields.


They smelted iron and made spears, arrow-heads, hoes, knives, cattle bells and jingles. The Akamba were efficient beekeepers and they harvested a lot of honey. They were engaged in traditional industries where they manufactured pots, baskets, mats, stools and shields. Those who lived close to river Tana did some fishing. They made carvings from wood and sold them to the people in exchange for cloth, snuff boxes and beads. Political organisation Politically the Akamba were organised into clans made up of several related families. They had councils of elders each entitled to Nzama Sya Utui . They practiced the age-set system and they were ranked in age grades such as junior elders, medium elders, full elders and senior elders. The Akamba were decentralised. Akamba warriors defended the community. Judgement of cases was done by the council of elders. How the Abagusii were organised socially, economically and politically. Social Organisation The Abagusii were organised into clans. Their social organisation was based on the extended family whose members claimed to have a common ancestor. They conducted initiation ceremonies in form of circumcision for boys and clitoridectomy for girls. Polygamy was a very common social practice among the Abagusii. The Abagusii worshipped one supreme God called Engoro . They prayed through ancestral spirits. The Abagusii sacrificed to their God, Engoro who they regarded as the creator of the universe. They had medicinemen, rain makers and prophets. Lastly, they also conducted ceremonies marking birth, initiation and death. 44Economic organisation. The Abagusii were pastoralists and they kept cattle, sheep and goats. They cultivated crops such as millet, sorghum, pumpkins, potatoes and beans. Men hunted wild game while women gathered wild fruits and roots. They conducted trade with their neighbours such as the Luo and the Luhyia. Finally, they were engaged in traditional industries such as making stone curvings and iron hoes for cultivation. Political organisation. The Abagusii were politically organised into clans made up of related families and each clan was ruled by Omogambi . They had age-set systems and councils of elders which led the clans in wars and judged cases. The Abagusii were politically decentralised. They had warriors who defended their territory from the enemies. The social, economic and political organisation of the Mijikenda in the 19th Century. Social organisation.


They had warriors who defended their territory from the enemies. The social, economic and political organisation of the Mijikenda in the 19th Century. Social organisation. The social organisation of the Mijikenda was based on the clan. They practiced the age-set system. Initiation of boys took place after every five years. The elders were the clan leaders. Inter marriages between Kayas existed. There was division of labour. Children looked after cattle, sheep and goats while young men built houses and cattle sheds, hunted and cleared the bush for cultivation. The Mijikenda worshipped God and offered sacrifices. They conducted ceremonies during the time of birth, initiation and marriage. Economic activities. The Mijikenda fished in the Indian Ocean. They kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats and hunted and gathered fruits, honey and vegetables. They were engaged in traditional industries such as weaving and basketry. The Mijikenda grew crops such as millet and also traded with the Swahilis and the people of the interior such as the Akamba. Political organisation The Mijikenda political set up was under the control of the clan. There were councils of elders who sorted out all matters concerning the Kayas . Age-set system existed. The Mijikenda had warriors who defended their territory and ensured that there was law and order. Cases were judged by the council of elders. 45The Social, economic, and political organisation of the Luo in the 19th Century. Social organisation The Luo were organised into clans composed of families with a common ancestor. The clans were grouped into larger territorial units called Gweng which were occupied by foreign lineages entitled Joka and clansmen. A council of elders existed which presided over religious ceremonies. The Luo worshipped a God called Nyasaye through their ancestral spirits. This was conducted in the sacred places. Priests existed who linked the people with the ancestral spirits. They had diviners who interpreted God s messages to the people. The Luo sacrificed for thanks giving and for appeasing their God. They initiated boys and girls into adulthood by removing their six lower teeth. They also prepared them for marriage. Finally, the Luo conducted other ceremonies and celebrations such as burial ceremonies, naming, beer drinking and wrestling. Economic organisation The Luo cultivated crops such as beans, sweet potatoes, peas, millet, groundnuts and sorghum. They hunted wild animals and collected fruits, vegetables and roots.


Finally, the Luo conducted other ceremonies and celebrations such as burial ceremonies, naming, beer drinking and wrestling. Economic organisation The Luo cultivated crops such as beans, sweet potatoes, peas, millet, groundnuts and sorghum. They hunted wild animals and collected fruits, vegetables and roots. The Luo businessmen traded with their neighbours for example Abaluhyia, Abagusii, Nandi and Kipsigis. The Luo smelted iron and made iron tools and also engaged themselves in the traditional industries such as pottery, basketry and cloth making. They fished in Lake Victoria and in the rivers passing through their territory e.g. Rivers Sondu, Nzoia, Nyando, Kuja and Yala. The political organisation The Luo were politically organised into clans and they were decentralised. The clans were made up of families headed by Jaduong . Several clans merged together formed a gweng . There existed a council of elders made up of clan heads and other remarkable elders. Related clans formed alliances and defended their territory. Each Luo alliance Oganda had a political leader entitled Ruoth. There were individual clan councils, doho, controlled by Ladito. Also there was a council called Buch Piny made up of elders who advised the Ruoth for example the military leader, Osumba Mirwayi. The council of elders was made up of clan heads and other remarkable elders. It solved internal disputes over land, declared war and performed other political and religious functions. 46Doho was a smaller council which operated under smaller regional sub-divisions. There were warriors referred to as Thuondi who raided the neighbouring communities. The social, economic and political organisation of the Nandi in the 19th century Social organisation The Nandi were organised according to totemic clans. The house was an important social unit and several houses made a family. The Nandi practiced initiation ceremonies like circumcision of boys during adolescence at five years intervals. They had age-set and age-grades. The age sets were cyclic. The Nandi people worshipped a supreme God and sacrificed to Him. This God was entitled Asis. They had medicine men, prophets and rain makers. The Orkoyiot acted as a spiritual leader although he was also a political leader. He foretold the future and also adviced the council of elders. Economic activities The Nandi practiced mixed farming because they grew crops and kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats.