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Question: what are the treatments for prostate cancer
Answer: key points there are different types of treatment for patients with prostate cancer seven types of standard treatment are used watchful waiting or active surveillance surgery radiation therapy and radiopharmaceutical therapy hormone therapy chemotherapy biologic therapy bisphosphonate therapy there are treatments for bone pain caused by bone metastases or hormone therapy new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials cryosurgery high intensityfocused ultrasound therapy proton beam radiation therapy patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment follow up tests may be needed there are different types of treatment for patients with prostate cancer different types of treatment are available for patients with prostate cancer some treatments are standard the currently used treatment and some are being tested in clinical trials a treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer when clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment the new treatment may become the standard treatment patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment seven types of standard treatment are used watchful waiting or active surveillance watchful waiting and active surveillance are treatments used for older men who do not have signs or symptoms or have other medical conditions and for men whose prostate cancer is found during a screening test watchful waiting is closely monitoring a patients condition without giving any treatment until signs or symptoms appear or change treatment is given to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life active surveillance is closely following a patient s condition without giving any treatment unless there are changes in test results it is used to find early signs that the condition is getting worse in active surveillance patients are given certain exams and tests including digital rectal exam psa test transrectal ultrasound and transrectal needle biopsy to check if the cancer is growing when the cancer begins to grow treatment is given to cure the cancer other terms that are used to describe not giving treatment to cure prostate cancer right after diagnosis are observation watch and wait and expectant management surgery patients in good health whose tumor is in the prostate gland only may be treated with surgery to remove the tumor the following types of surgery are used radical prostatectomy a surgical procedure to remove the prostate surrounding tissue and seminal vesicles there are two types of radical prostatectomy retropubic prostatectomy a surgical procedure to remove the prostate through an incision cut in the abdominal wall removal of nearby lymph nodes may be done at the same time perineal prostatectomy a surgical procedure to remove the prostate through an incision cut made in the perineum area between the scrotum and anus nearby lymph nodes may also be removed through a separate incision in the abdomen pelvic lymphadenectomy a surgical procedure to remove the lymph nodes in the pelvis a pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells if the lymph nodes contain cancer the doctor will not remove the prostate and may recommend other treatment transurethral resection of the prostate turp a surgical procedure to remove tissue from the prostate using a resectoscope a thin lighted tube with a cutting tool inserted through the urethra this procedure is done to treat benign prostatic hypertrophy and it is sometimes done to relieve symptoms caused by a tumor before other cancer treatment is given turp may also be done in men whose tumor is in the prostate only and who cannot have a radical prostatectomy in some cases nerve sparing surgery can be done this type of surgery may save the nerves that control erection however men with large tumors or tumors that are very close to the nerves may not be able to have this surgery possible problems after prostate cancer surgery include the following impotence leakage of urine from the bladder or stool from the rectum shortening of the penis 1 to 2 centimeters the exact reason for this is not known inguinal hernia bulging of fat or part of the small intestine through weak muscles into the groin inguinal hernia may occur more often in men treated with radical prostatectomy than in men who have some other types of prostate surgery radiation therapy or prostate biopsy alone it is most likely to occur within the first 2 years after radical prostatectomy radiation therapy and radiopharmaceutical therapy radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high energy x rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing there are different types of radiation therapy external radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer conformal radiation is a type of external radiation therapy that uses a computer to make a 3 dimensional 3 d picture of the tumor and shapes the radiation beams to fit the tumor this allows a high dose of radiation to reach the tumor and causes less damage to nearby healthy tissue hypofractionated radiation therapy may be given because it has a more convenient treatment schedule hypofractionated radiation therapy is radiation treatment in which a larger than usual total dose of radiation is given once a day over a shorter period of time fewer days compared to standard radiation therapy hypofractionated radiation therapy may have worse side effects than standard radiation therapy depending on the schedules used internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles seeds wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer in early stage prostate cancer the radioactive seeds are placed in the prostate using needles that are inserted through the skin between the scrotum and rectum the placement of the radioactive seeds in the prostate is guided by images from transrectal ultrasound or computed tomography ct the needles are removed after the radioactive seeds are placed in the prostate radiopharmaceutical therapy uses a radioactive substance to treat cancer radiopharmaceutical therapy includes the following alpha emitter radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance to treat prostate cancer that has spread to the bone a radioactive substance called radium 223 is injected into a vein and travels through the bloodstream the radium 223 collects in areas of bone with cancer and kills the cancer cells the way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated external radiation therapy internal radiation therapy and radiopharmaceutical therapy are used to treat prostate cancer men treated with radiation therapy for prostate cancer have an increased risk of having bladder and or gastrointestinal cancer radiation therapy can cause impotence and urinary problems hormone therapy hormone therapy is a cancer treatment that removes hormones or blocks their action and stops cancer cells from growing hormones are substances made by glands in the body and circulated in the bloodstream in prostate cancer male sex hormones can cause prostate cancer to grow drugs surgery or other hormones are used to reduce the amount of male hormones or block them from working hormone therapy for prostate cancer may include the following luteinizing hormone releasing hormone agonists can stop the testicles from making testosterone examples are leuprolide goserelin and buserelin antiandrogens can block the action of androgens hormones that promote male sex characteristics such as testosterone examples are flutamide bicalutamide enzalutamide and nilutamide drugs that can prevent the adrenal glands from making androgens include ketoconazole and aminoglutethimide orchiectomy is a surgical procedure to remove one or both testicles the main source of male hormones such as testosterone to decrease the amount of hormone being made estrogens hormones that promote female sex characteristics can prevent the testicles from making testosterone however estrogens are seldom used today in the treatment of prostate cancer because of the risk of serious side effects hot flashes impaired sexual function loss of desire for sex and weakened bones may occur in men treated with hormone therapy other side effects include diarrhea nausea and itching see drugs approved for prostate cancer for more information chemotherapy chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing when chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body systemic chemotherapy when chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid an organ or a body cavity such as the abdomen the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas regional chemotherapy the way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated see drugs approved for prostate cancer for more information biologic therapy biologic therapy is a treatment that uses the patients immune system to fight cancer substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost direct or restore the bodys natural defenses against cancer sipuleucel t is a type of biologic therapy used to treat prostate cancer that has metastasized spread to other parts of the body see drugs approved for prostate cancer for more information bisphosphonate therapy bisphosphonate drugs such as clodronate or zoledronate reduce bone disease when cancer has spread to the bone men who are treated with antiandrogen therapy or orchiectomy are at an increased risk of bone loss in these men bisphosphonate drugs lessen the risk of bone fracture breaks the use of bisphosphonate drugs to prevent or slow the growth of bone metastases is being studied in clinical trials there are treatments for bone pain caused by bone metastases or hormone therapy prostate cancer that has spread to the bone and certain types of hormone therapy can weaken bones and lead to bone pain treatments for bone pain include the following pain medicine external radiation therapy strontium 89 a radioisotope targeted therapy with a monoclonal antibody such as denosumab bisphosphonate therapy corticosteroids see the pdq summary on pain for more information new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials this summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials it may not mention every new treatment being studied information about clinical trials is available from the nci website cryosurgery cryosurgery is a treatment that uses an instrument to freeze and destroy prostate cancer cells ultrasound is used to find the area that will be treated this type of treatment is also called cryotherapy cryosurgery can cause impotence and leakage of urine from the bladder or stool from the rectum high intensityfocused ultrasound therapy high intensityfocused ultrasound therapy is a treatment that uses ultrasound high energy sound waves to destroy cancer cells to treat prostate cancer an endorectal probe is used to make the sound waves proton beam radiation therapy proton beam radiation therapy is a type of high energy external radiation therapy that targets tumors with streams of protons small positively charged particles this type of radiation therapy is being studied in the treatment of prostate cancer patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials follow up tests may be needed some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working decisions about whether to continue change or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended the results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back these tests are sometimes called follow up tests or check ups treatment options by stage stage i prostate cancer standard treatment of stage i prostate cancer may include the following watchful waiting active surveillance if the cancer begins to grow hormone therapy may be given radical prostatectomy usually with pelvic lymphadenectomy radiation therapy may be given after surgery external radiation therapy hormone therapy may be given after radiation therapy internal radiation therapy with radioactive seeds a clinical trial of high intensityfocused ultrasound therapy a clinical trial of cryosurgery check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage i prostate cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage ii prostate cancer standard treatment of stage ii prostate cancer may include the following watchful waiting active surveillance if the cancer begins to grow hormone therapy may be given radical prostatectomy usually with pelvic lymphadenectomy radiation therapy may be given after surgery external radiation therapy hormone therapy may be given after radiation therapy internal radiation therapy with radioactive seeds a clinical trial of cryosurgery a clinical trial of high intensityfocused ultrasound therapy a clinical trial of proton beam radiation therapy clinical trials of new types of treatment such as hormone therapy followed by radical prostatectomy check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage ii prostate cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage iii prostate cancer standard treatment of stage iii prostate cancer may include the following external radiation therapy hormone therapy may be given after radiation therapy hormone therapy radical prostatectomy radiation therapy may be given after surgery watchful waiting active surveillance if the cancer begins to grow hormone therapy may be given treatment to control cancer that is in the prostate and lessen urinary symptoms may include the following external radiation therapy internal radiation therapy with radioactive seeds hormone therapy transurethral resection of the prostate turp a clinical trial of new types of radiation therapy a clinical trial of cryosurgery check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage iii prostate cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage iv prostate cancer standard treatment of stage iv prostate cancer may include the following hormone therapy hormone therapy combined with chemotherapy bisphosphonate therapy external radiation therapy hormone therapy may be given after radiation therapy alpha emitter radiation therapy watchful waiting active surveillance if the cancer begins to grow hormone therapy may be given a clinical trial of radical prostatectomy with orchiectomy treatment to control cancer that is in the prostate and lessen urinary symptoms may include the following transurethral resection of the prostate turp radiation therapy check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage iv prostate cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website
Keywords: therapy, cancer, prostate, trial, radiation, clinical, hormone, type, patient, given


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Question: what research or clinical trials is being done for prostate cancer
Answer: new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials this summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials it may not mention every new treatment being studied information about clinical trials is available from the nci website cryosurgery cryosurgery is a treatment that uses an instrument to freeze and destroy prostate cancer cells ultrasound is used to find the area that will be treated this type of treatment is also called cryotherapy cryosurgery can cause impotence and leakage of urine from the bladder or stool from the rectum high intensityfocused ultrasound therapy high intensityfocused ultrasound therapy is a treatment that uses ultrasound high energy sound waves to destroy cancer cells to treat prostate cancer an endorectal probe is used to make the sound waves proton beam radiation therapy proton beam radiation therapy is a type of high energy external radiation therapy that targets tumors with streams of protons small positively charged particles this type of radiation therapy is being studied in the treatment of prostate cancer patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials
Keywords: trial, clinical, cancer, patient, new, part, therapy, treatment, prostate, radiation


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Question: who is at risk for childhood extracranial germ cell tumors
Answer: having certain inherited disorders can increase the risk of an extracranial germ cell tumor anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer not having risk factors doesnt mean that you will not get cancer talk with your childs doctor if you think your child may be at risk possible risk factors for extracranial germ cell tumors include the following having certain genetic syndromes klinefelter syndrome may increase the risk of germ cell tumors in the mediastinum swyer syndrome may increase the risk of germ cell tumors in the testicles or ovaries turner syndrome may increase the risk of germ cell tumors in the ovaries having an undescended testicle may increase the risk of developing a testicular germ cell tumor
Keywords: risk, cell, germ, tumor, increase, factor, syndrome, extracranial, cancer, mean


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Question: what is the outlook for childhood extracranial germ cell tumors
Answer: certain factors affect prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options the prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options depend on the following the type of germ cell tumor where the tumor first began to grow the stage of the cancer whether it has spread to nearby areas or to other places in the body how well the tumor responds to treatment lower afp and hcg levels whether the tumor can be completely removed by surgery the patient s age and general health whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred come back the prognosis for childhood extracranial germ cell tumors especially ovarian germ cell tumors is good
Keywords: tumor, cell, germ, prognosis, whether, cancer, chance, extracranial, option, recovery


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Question: what are the stages of childhood extracranial germ cell tumors
Answer: key points after a childhood extracranial germ cell tumor has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread from where the tumor started to nearby areas or to other parts of the body there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body stages are used to describe the different types of extracranial germ cell tumors childhood nonseminoma testicular germ cell tumors childhood ovarian germ cell tumors childhood extragonadal extracranial germ cell tumors after a childhood extracranial germ cell tumor has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread from where the tumor started to nearby areas or to other parts of the body the process used to find out if cancer has spread from where the tumor started to other parts of the body is called staging the information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease it is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment in some cases staging may follow surgery to remove the tumor the following procedures may be used mri magnetic resonance imaging a procedure that uses a magnet radio waves and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body such as the lymph nodes this procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging ct scan cat scan a procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body such as the chest or lymph nodes taken from different angles the pictures are made by a computer linked to an x ray machine a dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly this procedure is also called computed tomography computerized tomography or computerized axial tomography bone scan a procedure to check if there are rapidly dividing cells such as cancer cells in the bone a very small amount of radioactive material is injected into a vein and travels through the bloodstream the radioactive material collects in the bones with cancer and is detected by a scanner thoracentesis the removal of fluid from the space between the lining of the chest and the lung using a needle a pathologist views the fluid under a microscope to look for cancer cells paracentesis the removal of fluid from the space between the lining of the abdomen and the organs in the abdomen using a needle a pathologist views the fluid under a microscope to look for cancer cells the results from tests and procedures used to detect and diagnose childhood extracranial germ cell tumors may also be used in staging there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer can spread through tissue the lymph system and the blood tissue the cancer spreads from where it began by growing into nearby areas lymph system the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the lymph system the cancer travels through the lymph vessels to other parts of the body blood the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the blood the cancer travels through the blood vessels to other parts of the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body when cancer spreads to another part of the body it is called metastasis cancer cells break away from where they began the primary tumor and travel through the lymph system or blood lymph system the cancer gets into the lymph system travels through the lymph vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body blood the cancer gets into the blood travels through the blood vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body the metastatic tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor for example if an extracranial germ cell tumor spreads to the liver the cancer cells in the liver are actually cancerous germ cells the disease is metastatic extracranial germ cell tumor not liver cancer stages are used to describe the different types of extracranial germ cell tumors childhood nonseminoma testicular germ cell tumors stage i in stage i the cancer is found in the testicle only and is completely removed by surgery stage ii in stage ii the cancer is removed by surgery and some cancer cells remain in the scrotum or cancer that can be seen with a microscope only has spread to the scrotum or spermatic cord tumor marker levels do not return to normal after surgery or the tumor marker levels increase stage iii in stage iii the cancer has spread to one or more lymph nodes in the abdomen and is not completely removed by surgery the cancer that remains after surgery can be seen without a microscope stage iv in stage iv the cancer has spread to distant parts of the body such as the liver brain bone or lung childhood ovarian germ cell tumors there are two types of stages used for childhood ovarian germ cell tumors the following stages are from the children s oncology group stage i in stage i the cancer is in the ovary and can be completely removed by surgery and the capsule outer covering of the ovary has not ruptured broken open stage ii in stage ii one of the following is true the cancer is not completely removed by surgery the remaining cancer can be seen with a microscope only the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes and can be seen with a microscope only the cancer has spread to the capsule outer covering of the ovary stage iii in stage iii one of the following is true the cancer is not completely removed by surgery the remaining cancer can be seen without a microscope the cancer has spread to lymph nodes and the lymph nodes are 2 centimeters or larger cancer in the lymph nodes can be seen without a microscope the cancer is found in fluid in the abdomen stage iv in stage iv the cancer has spread to the lung liver brain or bone the following stages are from the international federation of gynecology and obstetrics figo stage i in stage i cancer is found in one or both of the ovaries and has not spread stage i is divided into stage ia stage ib and stage ic stage ia cancer is found in one ovary stage ib cancer is found in both ovaries stage ic cancer is found in one or both ovaries and one of the following is true cancer is found on the outside surface of one or both ovaries or the capsule outer covering of the tumor has ruptured broken open or cancer cells are found in fluid that has collected in the abdomen or cancer cells are found in washings of the peritoneal cavity the body cavity that contains most of the organs in the abdomen stage ii in stage ii cancer is found in one or both ovaries and has spread into other areas of the pelvis stage ii is divided into stage iia stage iib and stage iic stage iia cancer has spread to the uterus and or the fallopian tubes the long slender tubes through which eggs pass from the ovaries to the uterus stage iib cancer has spread to other tissue within the pelvis such as the bladder rectum or vagina stage iic cancer has spread to the uterus and or fallopian tubes and or other tissue within the pelvis and one of the following is true cancer is found on the outside surface of one or both ovaries or the capsule outer covering of the tumor has ruptured broken open or cancer cells are found in fluid that has collected in the abdomen or cancer cells are found in washings of the peritoneal cavity the body cavity that contains most of the organs in the abdomen stage iii in stage iii cancer is found in one or both ovaries and has spread to other parts of the abdomen cancer that has spread to the surface of the liver is also stage iii disease stage iii is divided into stage iiia stage iiib and stage iiic stage iiia the tumor is found in the pelvis only but cancer cells that can only be seen with a microscope have spread to the surface of the peritoneum tissue that lines the abdominal wall and covers most of the organs in the abdomen or to the small bowel stage iiib cancer has spread to the peritoneum and is 2 centimeters or smaller in diameter stage iiic cancer has spread to the peritoneum and is larger than 2 centimeters in diameter and or has spread to lymph nodes in the abdomen stage iv in stage iv cancer is found in one or both ovaries and has metastasized spread beyond the abdomen to other parts of the body cancer that has spread to tissues in the liver is also stage iv disease childhood extragonadal extracranial germ cell tumors stage i in stage i the cancer is in one place and can be completely removed by surgery for tumors in the sacrum or coccyx bottom part of the spine the sacrum and coccyx are completely removed by surgery tumor marker levels return to normal after surgery stage ii in stage ii the cancer has spread to the capsule outer covering and or lymph nodes the cancer is not completely removed by surgery and the cancer remaining after surgery can be seen with a microscope only tumor marker levels do not return to normal after surgery or increase stage iii in stage iii one of the following is true the cancer is not completely removed by surgery the cancer remaining after surgery can be seen without a microscope the cancer has spread to lymph nodes and is larger than 2 centimeters in diameter stage iv in stage iv the cancer has spread to distant parts of the body including the liver brain bone or lung
Keywords: cancer, stage, spread, tumor, cell, body, lymph, surgery, found, germ


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Question: what are the treatments for childhood extracranial germ cell tumors
Answer: key points there are different types of treatment for children with extracranial germ cell tumors children with extracranial germ cell tumors should have their treatment planned by a team of health care providers who are experts in treating cancer in children some cancer treatments cause side effects months or years after treatment has ended three types of standard treatment are used surgery observation chemotherapy new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials high dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant radiation therapy patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment follow up tests may be needed there are different types of treatment for children with extracranial germ cell tumors different types of treatments are available for children with extracranial germ cell tumors some treatments are standard the currently used treatment and some are being tested in clinical trials a treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer when clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment the new treatment may become the standard treatment because cancer in children is rare taking part in a clinical trial should be considered some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment children with extracranial germ cell tumors should have their treatment planned by a team of health care providers who are experts in treating cancer in children treatment will be overseen by a pediatric oncologist a doctor who specializes in treating children with cancer the pediatric oncologist works with other health care providers who are experts in treating children with extracranial germ cell tumors and who specialize in certain areas of medicine these may include the following specialists pediatrician pediatric surgeon pediatric hematologist radiation oncologist endocrinologist pediatric nurse specialist rehabilitation specialist child life professional psychologist social worker geneticist some cancer treatments cause side effects months or years after treatment has ended side effects from cancer treatment that begin during or after treatment and continue for months or years are called late effects late effects of cancer treatment may include the following physical problems changes in mood feelings thinking learning or memory second cancers new types of cancer for example late effects of surgery to remove tumors in the sacrum or coccyx include constipation loss of bowel and bladder control and scars some late effects may be treated or controlled it is important to talk with your child s doctors about the effects cancer treatment can have on your child see the pdq summary on late effects of treatment for childhood cancer for more information three types of standard treatment are used surgery surgery to completely remove the tumor is done whenever possible if the tumor is very large chemotherapy may be given first to make the tumor smaller and decrease the amount of tissue that needs to be removed during surgery a goal of surgery is to keep reproductive function the following types of surgery may be used resection surgery to remove tissue or part or all of an organ radical inguinal orchiectomy surgery to remove one or both testicles through an incision cut in the groin unilateral salpingo oophorectomy surgery to remove one ovary and one fallopian tube on the same side even if the doctor removes all the cancer that can be seen at the time of the surgery some patients may be given chemotherapy after surgery to kill any cancer cells that are left treatment given after the surgery to lower the risk that the cancer will come back is called adjuvant therapy observation observation is closely monitoring a patients condition without giving any treatment until signs or symptoms appear or change for childhood extracranial germ cell tumors this includes physical exams imaging tests and tumor marker tests chemotherapy chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing when chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body systemic chemotherapy when chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid an organ or a body cavity such as the abdomen the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas regional chemotherapy combination chemotherapy is treatment using more than one anticancer drug the way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials this summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials it may not mention every new treatment being studied information about clinical trials is available from the nci website high dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant high dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant is a way of giving high doses of chemotherapy and replacing blood forming cells destroyed by the cancer treatment stem cells immature blood cells are removed from the blood or bone marrow of the patient or a donor and are frozen and stored after the chemotherapy is completed the stored stem cells are thawed and given back to the patient through an infusion these reinfused stem cells grow into and restore the body s blood cells radiation therapy radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high energy x rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing there are two types of radiation therapy external radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles seeds wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer the way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type of cancer and whether it has come back external radiation therapy is being studied for the treatment of childhood extracranial germ cell tumors that have come back patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials follow up tests may be needed some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working decisions about whether to continue change or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended the results of these tests can show if your child s condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back these tests are sometimes called follow up tests or check ups for childhood extracranial germ cell tumors alpha fetoprotein afp tests and beta human chorionic gonadotropin hcg tests are done to see if treatment is working continued high levels of afp or hcg may mean the cancer is still growing for at least 3 years after surgery follow up will include regular physical exams imaging tests and tumor marker tests treatment options for childhood extracranial germ cell tumors mature and immature teratomas treatment of mature teratomas that are not in the sacrum or coccyx bottom part of the spine includes the following surgery to remove the tumor followed by observation treatment of immature teratomas that are not in the sacrum or coccyx includes the following surgery to remove the tumor followed by observation for stage i tumors surgery to remove the tumor for stage iiiv tumors treatment of immature teratomas that are in the sacrum or coccyx includes the following surgery removal of the sacrum and coccyx followed by observation sometimes a mature or immature teratoma also has malignant cells the teratoma and malignant cells may need to be treated differently regular follow up exams with imaging tests and the alpha fetoprotein afp tumor marker test will be done for at least 3 years check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with childhood teratoma for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your child s doctor about clinical trials that may be right for your child general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website malignant gonadal germ cell tumors malignant testicular germ cell tumors treatment of malignant testicular germ cell tumors may include the following for boys younger than 15 years surgery radical inguinal orchiectomy followed by observation for stage i tumors surgery radical inguinal orchiectomy followed by combination chemotherapy for stage ii iv tumors a second surgery may be done to remove any tumor remaining after chemotherapy for boys 15 years and older malignant testicular germ cell tumors in boys 15 years and older are treated differently than they are in young boys surgery may include removal of lymph nodes in the abdomen see the pdq summary on testicular cancer treatment for more information check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with childhood malignant testicular germ cell tumor for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your child s doctor about clinical trials that may be right for your child general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website malignant ovarian germ cell tumors dysgerminomas treatment of stage i dysgerminomas in young girls may include the following surgery unilateral salpingo oophorectomy followed by observation combination chemotherapy may be given if the tumor comes back treatment of stages iiiv dysgerminomas in young girls may include the following surgery unilateral salpingo oophorectomy followed by combination chemotherapy combination chemotherapy to shrink the tumor followed by surgery unilateral salpingo oophorectomy nongerminomas treatment of stage i nongerminomas in young girls may include the following surgery followed by observation surgery followed by combination chemotherapy treatment of stages iiiv nongerminomas in young girls may include the following surgery followed by combination chemotherapy a second surgery may be done to remove any remaining cancer biopsy followed by combination chemotherapy to shrink the tumor and sometimes surgery for tumors that cannot be removed by surgery when cancer is diagnosed the treatment for adolescents and young adults with ovarian germ cell tumor is much like the treatment for adults see the pdq treatment summary on ovarian germ cell tumors for more information check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with childhood malignant ovarian germ cell tumor for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your child s doctor about clinical trials that may be right for your child general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website malignant extragonadal extracranial germ cell tumors treatment of childhood malignant extragonadal extracranial germ cell tumors may include the following combination chemotherapy to shrink the tumor followed by surgery to remove the sacrum and coccyx bottom part of the spine for tumors that are in the sacrum or coccyx combination chemotherapy to shrink the tumor followed by surgery to remove tumors that are in the mediastinum biopsy followed by combination chemotherapy to shrink the tumor and surgery to remove tumors that are in the abdomen surgery to remove the tumor followed by combination chemotherapy for tumors of the head and neck treatment of malignant extragonadal extracranial germ cell tumors in places not already described includes the following surgery followed by combination chemotherapy check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with childhood extragonadal germ cell tumor for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your child s doctor about clinical trials that may be right for your child general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website recurrent childhood malignant extracranial germ cell tumors there is no standard treatment for recurrent childhood malignant extracranial germ cell tumors treatment depends on the following the type of treatment given when the cancer was diagnosed how the tumor responded to the initial treatment treatment is usually within a clinical trial and may include the following surgery surgery followed by combination chemotherapy for most malignant extracranial germ cell tumors including immature teratomas malignant testicular germ cell tumors and malignant ovarian germ cell tumors surgery for tumors that come back in the sacrum or coccyx bottom part of the spine if surgery to remove the sacrum and coccyx was not done when the cancer was diagnosed chemotherapy may be given before surgery to shrink the tumor if any tumor remains after surgery radiation therapy may also be given combination chemotherapy for stage i malignant testicular germ cell tumors and stage i ovarian dysgerminomas high dose chemotherapy and stem cell transplant radiation therapy followed by surgery to remove the tumor in the brain for cancer that has spread to the brain a clinical trial of combination chemotherapy alone compared with high dose chemotherapy followed by stem cell transplant check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with recurrent childhood malignant germ cell tumor for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your child s doctor about clinical trials that may be right for your child general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website
Keywords: tumor, cancer, cell, trial, surgery, clinical, chemotherapy, germ, child, followed


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Question: what research or clinical trials is being done for childhood extracranial germ cell tumors
Answer: new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials this summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials it may not mention every new treatment being studied information about clinical trials is available from the nci website high dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant high dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant is a way of giving high doses of chemotherapy and replacing blood forming cells destroyed by the cancer treatment stem cells immature blood cells are removed from the blood or bone marrow of the patient or a donor and are frozen and stored after the chemotherapy is completed the stored stem cells are thawed and given back to the patient through an infusion these reinfused stem cells grow into and restore the body s blood cells radiation therapy radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high energy x rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing there are two types of radiation therapy external radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles seeds wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer the way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type of cancer and whether it has come back external radiation therapy is being studied for the treatment of childhood extracranial germ cell tumors that have come back patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials
Keywords: trial, clinical, cancer, cell, radiation, patient, therapy, new, part, treatment


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Question: what is are skin cancer
Answer: key points skin cancer is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the skin there are different types of cancer that start in the skin skin color and being exposed to sunlight can increase the risk of nonmelanoma skin cancer and actinic keratosis nonmelanoma skin cancer and actinic keratosis often appear as a change in the skin tests or procedures that examine the skin are used to detect find and diagnose nonmelanoma skin cancer and actinic keratosis certain factors affect prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options skin cancer is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the skin the skin is the bodys largest organ it protects against heat sunlight injury and infection skin also helps control body temperature and stores water fat and vitamin d the skin has several layers but the two main layers are the epidermis upper or outer layer and the dermis lower or inner layer skin cancer begins in the epidermis which is made up of three kinds of cells squamous cells thin flat cells that form the top layer of the epidermis basal cells round cells under the squamous cells melanocytes cells that make melanin and are found in the lower part of the epidermis melanin is the pigment that gives skin its natural color when skin is exposed to the sun melanocytes make more pigment and cause the skin to darken skin cancer can occur anywhere on the body but it is most common in skin that is often exposed to sunlight such as the face neck hands and arms there are different types of cancer that start in the skin the most common types are basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma which are nonmelanoma skin cancers nonmelanoma skin cancers rarely spread to other parts of the body melanoma is a much rarer type of skin cancer it is more likely to invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body actinic keratosis is a skin condition that sometimes becomes squamous cell carcinoma this summary is about nonmelanoma skin cancer and actinic keratosis see the following pdq summaries for information on melanoma and other kinds of cancer that affect the skin melanoma treatment mycosis fungoides and the szary syndrome treatment kaposi sarcoma treatment merkel cell carcinoma treatment unusual cancers of childhood treatment genetics of skin cancer nonmelanoma skin cancer and actinic keratosis often appear as a change in the skin not all changes in the skin are a sign of nonmelanoma skin cancer or actinic keratosis check with your doctor if you notice any changes in your skin signs of nonmelanoma skin cancer include the following a sore that does not heal areas of the skin that are raised smooth shiny and look pearly firm and look like a scar and may be white yellow or waxy raised and red or reddish brown scaly bleeding or crusty
Keywords: skin, cancer, cell, nonmelanoma, actinic, keratosis, body, layer, change, epidermis


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Question: who is at risk for skin cancer
Answer: skin color and being exposed to sunlight can increase the risk of nonmelanoma skin cancer and actinic keratosis anything that increases your chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer not having risk factors doesnt mean that you will not get cancer talk with your doctor if you think you may be at risk risk factors for basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma include the following being exposed to natural sunlight or artificial sunlight such as from tanning beds over long periods of time having a fair complexion which includes the following fair skin that freckles and burns easily does not tan or tans poorly blue or green or other light colored eyes red or blond hair having actinic keratosis past treatment with radiation having a weakened immune system having certain changes in the genes that are linked to skin cancer being exposed to arsenic
Keywords: risk, cancer, skin, factor, exposed, sunlight, actinic, fair, get, mean


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Question: how to diagnose skin cancer
Answer: tests or procedures that examine the skin are used to detect find and diagnose nonmelanoma skin cancer and actinic keratosis the following procedures may be used skin exam a doctor or nurse checks the skin for bumps or spots that look abnormal in color size shape or texture skin biopsy all or part of the abnormal looking growth is cut from the skin and viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer there are four main types of skin biopsies shave biopsy a sterile razor blade is used to shave off the abnormal looking growth punch biopsy a special instrument called a punch or a trephine is used to remove a circle of tissue from the abnormal looking growth incisional biopsy a scalpel is used to remove part of a growth excisional biopsy a scalpel is used to remove the entire growth
Keywords: skin, biopsy, used, growth, abnormal, cancer, looking, remove, procedure, punch


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Question: what is the outlook for skin cancer
Answer: certain factors affect prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options the prognosis chance of recovery depends mostly on the stage of the cancer and the type of treatment used to remove the cancer treatment options depend on the following the stage of the cancer whether it has spread deeper into the skin or to other places in the body the type of cancer the size of the tumor and what part of the body it affects the patients general health
Keywords: cancer, affect, body, chance, option, prognosis, recovery, skin, stage, type


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Question: what are the stages of skin cancer
Answer: key points after nonmelanoma skin cancer has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the skin or to other parts of the body there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body staging of nonmelanoma skin cancer depends on whether the tumor has certain high risk features and if the tumor is on the eyelid the following stages are used for nonmelanoma skin cancer that is not on the eyelid stage 0 carcinoma in situ stage i stage i nonmelanoma skin cancer the tumor is no more than 2 centimeters stage ii stage ii nonmelanoma skin cancer the tumor is more than 2 centimeters wide stage iii stage iv the following stages are used for nonmelanoma skin cancer on the eyelid stage 0 carcinoma in situ stage i stage ii stage iii stage iv treatment is based on the type of nonmelanoma skin cancer or other skin condition diagnosed basal cell carcinoma squamous cell carcinoma actinic keratosis after nonmelanoma skin cancer has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the skin or to other parts of the body the process used to find out if cancer has spread within the skin or to other parts of the body is called staging the information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease it is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment the following tests and procedures may be used in the staging process ct scan cat scan a procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body taken from different angles the pictures are made by a computer linked to an x ray machine a dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly this procedure is also called computed tomography computerized tomography or computerized axial tomography mri magnetic resonance imaging a procedure that uses a magnet radio waves and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body this procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging nmri lymph node biopsy for squamous cell carcinoma the lymph nodes may be removed and checked to see if cancer has spread to them there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer can spread through tissue the lymph system and the blood tissue the cancer spreads from where it began by growing into nearby areas lymph system the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the lymph system the cancer travels through the lymph vessels to other parts of the body blood the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the blood the cancer travels through the blood vessels to other parts of the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body when cancer spreads to another part of the body it is called metastasis cancer cells break away from where they began the primary tumor and travel through the lymph system or blood lymph system the cancer gets into the lymph system travels through the lymph vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body blood the cancer gets into the blood travels through the blood vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body the metastatic tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor for example if skin cancer spreads to the lung the cancer cells in the lung are actually skin cancer cells the disease is metastatic skin cancer not lung cancer staging of nonmelanoma skin cancer depends on whether the tumor has certain high risk features and if the tumor is on the eyelid staging for nonmelanoma skin cancer that is on the eyelid is different from staging for nonmelanoma skin cancer that affects other parts of the body the following are high risk features for nonmelanoma skin cancer that is not on the eyelid the tumor is thicker than 2 millimeters the tumor is described as clark level iv has spread into the lower layer of the dermis or clark level v has spread into the layer of fat below the skin the tumor has grown and spread along nerve pathways the tumor began on an ear or on a lip that has hair on it the tumor has cells that look very different from normal cells under a microscope the following stages are used for nonmelanoma skin cancer that is not on the eyelid stage 0 carcinoma in situ in stage 0 abnormal cells are found in the squamous cell or basal cell layer of the epidermis topmost layer of the skin these abnormal cells may become cancer and spread into nearby normal tissue stage 0 is also called carcinoma in situ stage i in stage i cancer has formed the tumor is not larger than 2 centimeters at its widest point and may have one high risk feature stage ii in stage ii the tumor is either larger than 2 centimeters at its widest point or any size and has two or more high risk features stage iii in stage iii the tumor has spread to the jaw eye socket or side of the skull cancer may have spread to one lymph node on the same side of the body as the tumor the lymph node is not larger than 3 centimeters or cancer has spread to one lymph node on the same side of the body as the tumor the lymph node is not larger than 3 centimeters and one of the following is true the tumor is not larger than 2 centimeters at its widest point and may have one high risk feature or the tumor is larger than 2 centimeters at its widest point or the tumor is any size and has two or more high risk features stage iv in stage iv one of the following is true the tumor is any size and may have spread to the jaw eye socket or side of the skull cancer has spread to one lymph node on the same side of the body as the tumor and the affected node is larger than 3 centimeters but not larger than 6 centimeters or cancer has spread to more than one lymph node on one or both sides of the body and the affected nodes are not larger than 6 centimeters or the tumor is any size and may have spread to the jaw eye socket skull spine or ribs cancer has spread to one lymph node that is larger than 6 centimeters or the tumor is any size and has spread to the base of the skull spine or ribs cancer may have spread to the lymph nodes or cancer has spread to other parts of the body such as the lung the following stages are used for nonmelanoma skin cancer on the eyelid stage 0 carcinoma in situ in stage 0 abnormal cells are found in the epidermis topmost layer of the skin these abnormal cells may become cancer and spread into nearby normal tissue stage 0 is also called carcinoma in situ stage i stage i is divided into stages ia ib and ic stage ia the tumor is 5 millimeters or smaller and has not spread to the connective tissue of the eyelid or to the edge of the eyelid where the lashes are stage ib the tumor is larger than 5 millimeters but not larger than 10 millimeters or has spread to the connective tissue of the eyelid or to the edge of the eyelid where the lashes are stage ic the tumor is larger than 10 millimeters but not larger than 20 millimeters or has spread through the full thickness of the eyelid stage ii in stage ii one of the following is true the tumor is larger than 20 millimeters the tumor has spread to nearby parts of the eye or eye socket the tumor has spread to spaces around the nerves in the eyelid stage iii stage iii is divided into stages iiia iiib and iiic stage iiia to remove all of the tumor the whole eye and part of the optic nerve must be removed the bone muscles fat and connective tissue around the eye may also be removed stage iiib the tumor may be anywhere in or near the eye and has spread to nearby lymph nodes stage iiic the tumor has spread to structures around the eye or in the face or to the brain and cannot be removed in surgery stage iv the tumor has spread to distant parts of the body treatment is based on the type of nonmelanoma skin cancer or other skin condition diagnosed basal cell carcinoma basal cell carcinoma is the most common type of skin cancer it usually occurs on areas of the skin that have been in the sun most often the nose often this cancer appears as a raised bump that looks smooth and pearly another type looks like a scar and is flat and firm and may be white yellow or waxy basal cell carcinoma may spread to tissues around the cancer but it usually does not spread to other parts of the body squamous cell carcinoma squamous cell carcinoma occurs on areas of the skin that have been in the sun such as the ears lower lip and the back of the hands squamous cell carcinoma may also appear on areas of the skin that have been burned or exposed to chemicals or radiation often this cancer appears as a firm red bump the tumor may feel scaly bleed or form a crust squamous cell tumors may spread to nearby lymph nodes squamous cell carcinoma that has not spread can usually be cured actinic keratosis actinic keratosis is a skin condition that is not cancer but sometimes changes into squamous cell carcinoma it usually occurs in areas that have been exposed to the sun such as the face the back of the hands and the lower lip it looks like rough red pink or brown scaly patches on the skin that may be flat or raised or the lower lip cracks and peels and is not helped by lip balm or petroleum jelly
Keywords: cancer, stage, spread, tumor, skin, cell, body, lymph, carcinoma, part


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Question: what are the treatments for skin cancer
Answer: key points there are different types of treatment for patients with nonmelanoma skin cancer and actinic keratosis six types of standard treatment are used surgery radiation therapy chemotherapy photodynamic therapy biologic therapy targeted therapy new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials treatment for skin cancer may cause side effects patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment follow up tests may be needed there are different types of treatment for patients with nonmelanoma skin cancer and actinic keratosis different types of treatment are available for patients with nonmelanoma skin cancer and actinic keratosis some treatments are standard the currently used treatment and some are being tested in clinical trials a treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer when clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment the new treatment may become the standard treatment patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment six types of standard treatment are used surgery one or more of the following surgical procedures may be used to treat nonmelanoma skin cancer or actinic keratosis mohs micrographic surgery the tumor is cut from the skin in thin layers during surgery the edges of the tumor and each layer of tumor removed are viewed through a microscope to check for cancer cells layers continue to be removed until no more cancer cells are seen this type of surgery removes as little normal tissue as possible and is often used to remove skin cancer on the face simple excision the tumor is cut from the skin along with some of the normal skin around it shave excision the abnormal area is shaved off the surface of the skin with a small blade electrodesiccation and curettage the tumor is cut from the skin with a curette a sharp spoon shaped tool a needle shaped electrode is then used to treat the area with an electric current that stops the bleeding and destroys cancer cells that remain around the edge of the wound the process may be repeated one to three times during the surgery to remove all of the cancer cryosurgery a treatment that uses an instrument to freeze and destroy abnormal tissue such as carcinoma in situ this type of treatment is also called cryotherapy laser surgery a surgical procedure that uses a laser beam a narrow beam of intense light as a knife to make bloodless cuts in tissue or to remove a surface lesion such as a tumor dermabrasion removal of the top layer of skin using a rotating wheel or small particles to rub away skin cells radiation therapy radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high energy x rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing there are two types of radiation therapy external radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles seeds wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer the way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type of cancer being treated external radiation therapy is used to treat skin cancer chemotherapy chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing when chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body systemic chemotherapy when chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid an organ or a body cavity such as the abdomen the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas regional chemotherapy chemotherapy for nonmelanoma skin cancer and actinic keratosis is usually topical applied to the skin in a cream or lotion the way the chemotherapy is given depends on the condition being treated retinoids drugs related to vitamin a are sometimes used to treat squamous cell carcinoma of the skin see drugs approved for basal cell carcinoma for more information photodynamic therapy photodynamic therapy pdt is a cancer treatment that uses a drug and a certain type of laser light to kill cancer cells a drug that is not active until it is exposed to light is injected into a vein the drug collects more in cancer cells than in normal cells for skin cancer laser light is shined onto the skin and the drug becomes active and kills the cancer cells photodynamic therapy causes little damage to healthy tissue biologic therapy biologic therapy is a treatment that uses the patients immune system to fight cancer substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost direct or restore the bodys natural defenses against cancer this type of cancer treatment is also called biotherapy or immunotherapy interferon and imiquimod are biologic agents used to treat skin cancer interferon by injection may be used to treat squamous cell carcinoma of the skin topical imiquimod therapy a cream applied to the skin may be used to treat some small basal cell carcinomas see drugs approved for basal cell carcinoma for more information targeted therapy targeted therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to attack cancer cells targeted therapies usually cause less harm to normal cells than chemotherapy or radiation therapy do targeted therapy with a signal transduction inhibitor is used to treat basal cell carcinoma signal transduction inhibitors block signals that are passed from one molecule to another inside a cell blocking these signals may kill cancer cells vismodegib and sonidegib are signal transduction inhibitors used to treat basal cell carcinoma see drugs approved for basal cell carcinoma for more information new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website treatment for skin cancer may cause side effects for information about side effects caused by treatment for cancer see our side effects page patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials follow up tests may be needed some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working decisions about whether to continue change or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended the results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back these tests are sometimes called follow up tests or check ups basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma are likely to recur come back usually within 5 years or new tumors may form talk to your doctor about how often you should have your skin checked for signs of cancer treatment options for nonmelanoma skin cancer basal cell carcinoma treatment of basal cell carcinoma may include the following simple excision mohs micrographic surgery radiation therapy electrodesiccation and curettage cryosurgery photodynamic therapy topical chemotherapy topical biologic therapy with imiquimod laser surgery treatment of recurrent basal cell carcinoma is usually mohs micrographic surgery treatment of basal cell carcinoma that is metastatic or cannot be treated with local therapy may include the following targeted therapy with a signal transduction inhibitor chemotherapy a clinical trial of a new treatment check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with basal cell carcinoma of the skin for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website squamous cell carcinoma treatment of squamous cell carcinoma may include the following simple excision mohs micrographic surgery radiation therapy electrodesiccation and curettage cryosurgery treatment of recurrent squamous cell carcinoma may include the following simple excision mohs micrographic surgery radiation therapy treatment of squamous cell carcinoma that is metastatic or cannot be treated with local therapy may include the following chemotherapy retinoid therapy and biologic therapy with interferon a clinical trial of a new treatment check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the skin for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website
Keywords: cancer, cell, trial, clinical, therapy, skin, carcinoma, patient, type, radiation


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Question: what research or clinical trials is being done for skin cancer
Answer: new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website treatment for skin cancer may cause side effects for information about side effects caused by treatment for cancer see our side effects page patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials
Keywords: trial, clinical, cancer, patient, part, new, effect, side, treatment, research


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Question: what is the outlook for neuroblastoma
Answer: certain factors affect prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options the prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options depend on the following age of the child at the time of diagnosis the child s risk group whether there are certain changes in the genes where in the body the tumor started tumor histology the shape function and structure of the tumor cells whether there is cancer in the lymph nodes on the same side of the body as the primary cancer or whether there is cancer in the lymph nodes on the opposite side of the body how the tumor responds to treatment how much time passed between diagnosis and when the cancer recurred for recurrent cancer prognosis and treatment options for neuroblastoma are also affected by tumor biology which includes the patterns of the tumor cells how different the tumor cells are from normal cells how fast the tumor cells are growing whether the tumor shows mycn amplification whether the tumor has changes in the alk gene the tumor biology is said to be favorable or unfavorable depending on these factors a favorable tumor biology means there is a better chance of recovery in some children up to 6 months old neuroblastoma may disappear without treatment this is called spontaneous regression the child is closely watched for signs or symptoms of neuroblastoma if signs or symptoms occur treatment may be needed
Keywords: tumor, cancer, cell, whether, child, neuroblastoma, body, option, prognosis, recovery


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Question: what are the stages of neuroblastoma
Answer: key points after neuroblastoma has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer has spread from where it started to other parts of the body there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body the following stages are used for neuroblastoma stage 1 stage 2 stage 3 stage 4 treatment of neuroblastoma is based on risk groups after neuroblastoma has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer has spread from where it started to other parts of the body the process used to find out the extent or spread of cancer is called staging the information gathered from the staging process helps determine the stage of the disease for neuroblastoma the stage of disease affects whether the cancer is low risk intermediate risk or high risk it also affects the treatment plan the results of some tests and procedures used to diagnose neuroblastoma may be used for staging see the general information section for a description of these tests and procedures the following tests and procedures also may be used to determine the stage lymph node biopsy the removal of all or part of a lymph node a pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells one of the following types of biopsies may be done excisional biopsy the removal of an entire lymph node incisional biopsy the removal of part of a lymph node core biopsy the removal of tissue from a lymph node using a wide needle fine needle aspiration fna biopsy the removal of tissue or fluid from a lymph node using a thin needle x ray of the bone an x ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film making a picture of areas inside the body bone scan a procedure to check if there are rapidly dividing cells such as cancer cells in the bone a very small amount of radioactive material is injected into a vein and travels through the bloodstream the radioactive material collects in the bones with cancer and is detected by a scanner pet scan positron emission tomography scan a procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body a small amount of radioactive glucose sugar is injected into a vein the pet scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer can spread through tissue the lymph system and the blood tissue the cancer spreads from where it began by growing into nearby areas lymph system the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the lymph system the cancer travels through the lymph vessels to other parts of the body blood the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the blood the cancer travels through the blood vessels to other parts of the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body when cancer spreads to another part of the body it is called metastasis cancer cells break away from where they began the primary tumor and travel through the lymph system or blood lymph system the cancer gets into the lymph system travels through the lymph vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body blood the cancer gets into the blood travels through the blood vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body the metastatic tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor for example if neuroblastoma spreads to the liver the cancer cells in the liver are actually neuroblastoma cells the disease is metastatic neuroblastoma not liver cancer the following stages are used for neuroblastoma stage 1 in stage 1 the tumor is in only one area and all of the tumor that can be seen is completely removed during surgery stage 2 stage 2 is divided into stages 2a and 2b stage 2a the tumor is in only one area and all of the tumor that can be seen cannot be completely removed during surgery stage 2b the tumor is in only one area and all of the tumor that can be seen may be completely removed during surgery cancer cells are found in the lymph nodes near the tumor stage 3 in stage 3 one of the following is true the tumor cannot be completely removed during surgery and has spread from one side of the body to the other side and may also have spread to nearby lymph nodes or the tumor is in only one area on one side of the body but has spread to lymph nodes on the other side of the body or the tumor is in the middle of the body and has spread to tissues or lymph nodes on both sides of the body and the tumor cannot be removed by surgery stage 4 stage 4 is divided into stages 4 and 4s in stage 4 the tumor has spread to distant lymph nodes or other parts of the body in stage 4s the child is younger than 12 months and the cancer has spread to the skin liver and or bone marrow and the tumor is in only one area and all of the tumor that can be seen may be completely removed during surgery and or cancer cells may be found in the lymph nodes near the tumor treatment of neuroblastoma is based on risk groups for many types of cancer stages are used to plan treatment for neuroblastoma treatment depends on risk groups the stage of neuroblastoma is one factor used to determine risk group other factors are the age of the child tumor histology and tumor biology there are three risk groups low risk intermediate risk and high risk low risk and intermediate risk neuroblastoma have a good chance of being cured high risk neuroblastoma may be hard to cure
Keywords: cancer, stage, tumor, body, lymph, spread, neuroblastoma, risk, node, part


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Question: what are the treatments for neuroblastoma
Answer: key points there are different types of treatment for patients with neuroblastoma children with neuroblastoma should have their treatment planned by a team of doctors who are experts in treating childhood cancer especially neuroblastoma children who are treated for neuroblastoma may have late effects including an increased risk of second cancers seven types of standard treatment are used observation surgery radiation therapy iodine 131 mibg therapy chemotherapy high dose chemotherapy and radiation therapy with stem cell rescue targeted therapy new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials immunotherapy other drug therapy patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment follow up tests may be needed there are different types of treatment for patients with neuroblastoma different types of treatment are available for patients with neuroblastoma some treatments are standard the currently used treatment and some are being tested in clinical trials a treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer when clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment the new treatment may become the standard treatment because cancer in children is rare taking part in a clinical trial should be considered some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment children with neuroblastoma should have their treatment planned by a team of doctors who are experts in treating childhood cancer especially neuroblastoma treatment will be overseen by a pediatric oncologist a doctor who specializes in treating children with cancer the pediatric oncologist works with other pediatric health care providers who are experts in treating children with neuroblastoma and who specialize in certain areas of medicine these may include the following specialists pediatric surgeon pediatric radiation oncologist endocrinologist neurologist pediatric neuropathologist neuroradiologist pediatrician pediatric nurse specialist social worker child life professional psychologist children who are treated for neuroblastoma may have late effects including an increased risk of second cancers some cancer treatments cause side effects that continue or appear years after cancer treatment has ended these are called late effects late effects of cancer treatment may include physical problems changes in mood feelings thinking learning or memory second cancers new types of cancer some late effects may be treated or controlled it is important that parents of children who are treated for neuroblastoma talk with their doctors about the possible late effects caused by some treatments see the pdq summary on late effects of treatment for childhood cancer for more information seven types of standard treatment are used observation observation is closely monitoring a patient s condition without giving any treatment until signs or symptoms appear or change surgery surgery is used to treat neuroblastoma unless it has spread to other parts of the body depending on where the tumor is as much of the tumor as is safely possible will be removed if the tumor cannot be removed a biopsy may be done instead radiation therapy radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high energy x rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing there are two types of radiation therapy external radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles seeds wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer the way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type of cancer being treated and the child s risk group external radiation therapy is used to treat neuroblastoma iodine 131 mibg therapy iodine 131 mibg therapy is a treatment with radioactive iodine the radioactive iodine is given through an intravenous iv line and enters the bloodstream which carries radiation directly to tumor cells radioactive iodine collects in neuroblastoma cells and kills them with the radiation that is given off iodine 131 mibg therapy is sometimes used to treat high risk neuroblastoma that comes back after initial treatment chemotherapy chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing when chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body systemic chemotherapy when chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid an organ or a body cavity such as the abdomen the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas regional chemotherapy the way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type of cancer being treated and the child s risk group the use of two or more anticancer drugs is called combination chemotherapy see drugs approved for neuroblastoma for more information high dose chemotherapy and radiation therapy with stem cell rescue high dose chemotherapy and radiation therapy with stem cell rescue is a way of giving high doses of chemotherapy and radiation therapy and replacing blood forming cells destroyed by cancer treatment for high risk neuroblastoma stem cells immature blood cells are removed from the blood or bone marrow of the patient and are frozen and stored after chemotherapy and radiation therapy are completed the stored stem cells are thawed and given back to the patient through an infusion these reinfused stem cells grow into and restore the body s blood cells maintenance therapy is given after high dose chemotherapy and radiation therapy with stem cell rescue to kill any cancer cells that may regrow and cause the disease to come back maintenance therapy is given for 6 months and includes the following treatments isotretinoin a vitamin like drug that slows the cancer s ability to make more cancer cells and changes how these cells look and act this drug is taken by mouth dinutuximab a type of monoclonal antibody therapy that uses an antibody made in the laboratory from a single type of immune system cell dinutuximab identifies and attaches to a substance called gd2 on the surface of neuroblastoma cells once dinutuximab attaches to the gd2 a signal is sent to the immune system that a foreign substance has been found and needs to be killed then the body s immune system kills the neuroblastoma cell dinutuximab is given by infusion it is a type of targeted therapy granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor gm csf a cytokine that helps make more immune system cells especially granulocytes and macrophages white blood cells which can attack and kill cancer cells interleukin 2 il 2 a type of immunotherapy that boosts the growth and activity of many immune cells especially lymphocytes a type of white blood cell lymphocytes can attack and kill cancer cells see drugs approved for neuroblastoma for more information targeted therapy targeted therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack cancer cells with less harm to normal cells there are different types of targeted therapy tyrosine kinase inhibitors are small molecule drugs that go through the cell membrane and work inside cancer cells to block signals that cancer cells need to grow and divide crizotinib is used to treat neuroblastoma that has come back after treatment antibody drug conjugates are made up of a monoclonal antibody attached to a drug the monoclonal antibody binds to specific proteins or receptors found on certain cells including cancer cells the drug enters these cells and kills them without harming other cells lorvotuzumab mertansine is an antibody drug conjugate being studied to treat neuroblastoma that has come back after treatment new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials this summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials it may not mention every new treatment being studied information about clinical trials is available from the nci website immunotherapy immunotherapy is a treatment that uses the patients immune system to fight cancer substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost direct or restore the bodys natural defenses against cancer this type of cancer treatment is also called biotherapy or biological therapy vaccine therapy uses a substance to stimulate the immune system to destroy a tumor vaccine therapy is being studied to treat neuroblastoma that has come back after treatment other drug therapy lenalidomide is a type of angiogenesis inhibitor it prevents the growth of new blood vessels that are needed by a tumor to grow patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials follow up tests may be needed some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working decisions about whether to continue change or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended the results of these tests can show if your child s condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back these tests are sometimes called follow up tests or check ups treatment options for neuroblastoma low risk neuroblastoma treatment of low risk neuroblastoma may include the following surgery followed by observation chemotherapy with or without surgery for children with symptoms children whose tumor has continued to grow and cannot be removed by surgery or children with unfavorable tumor biology observation alone for infants younger than 6 months who have small adrenal tumors observation alone for infants who do not have signs or symptoms of neuroblastoma radiation therapy to treat tumors that are causing serious problems and do not respond quickly to chemotherapy or surgery a clinical trial of treatment based on the tumor s response to treatment and tumor biology intermediate risk neuroblastoma treatment of intermediate risk neuroblastoma may include the following chemotherapy for children with symptoms or to shrink a tumor that cannot be removed by surgery surgery may be done after chemotherapy surgery alone for infants observation alone for certain infants radiation therapy to treat tumors that are causing serious problems and do not respond quickly to chemotherapy or surgery radiation therapy for tumors that do not respond to other treatment a clinical trial of treatment based on the tumor s response to treatment and tumor biology high risk neuroblastoma treatment of high risk neuroblastoma may include the following a regimen of combination chemotherapy surgery stem cell rescue radiation therapy and monoclonal antibody therapy dinutuximab with interleukin 2 il 2 granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor gm csf and isotretinoin stage 4s neuroblastoma there is no standard treatment for stage 4s neuroblastoma but treatment options include the following observation with supportive care for certain children who have favorable tumor biology and do not have signs or symptoms chemotherapy for children who have signs or symptoms of neuroblastoma or unfavorable tumor biology or for very young infants a clinical trial of treatment based on the tumor s response to treatment and tumor biology recurrent neuroblastoma patients first treated for low risk neuroblastoma treatment for recurrent neuroblastoma that is found only in the area where the cancer first formed may include the following surgery followed by observation or chemotherapy chemotherapy that may be followed by surgery treatment for recurrent neuroblastoma that has spread to other parts of the body may include the following observation chemotherapy surgery followed by chemotherapy treatment as for newly diagnosed high risk neuroblastoma for children older than 1 year patients first treated for intermediate risk neuroblastoma treatment for recurrent neuroblastoma that is found only in the area where the cancer first formed may include the following surgery that may be followed by chemotherapy treatment as for newly diagnosed high risk neuroblastoma for neuroblastoma that has spread to other parts of the body recurrent neuroblastoma that has spread to other parts of the body is treated the same way as newly diagnosed high risk neuroblastoma patients first treated for high risk neuroblastoma treatment for recurrent neuroblastoma may include the following combination chemotherapy iodine 131 mibg therapy to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life it may be given alone or in combination with other therapy or before stem cell rescue a second course of high dose chemotherapy and stem cell rescue tyrosine kinase inhibitor therapy crizotinib for patients with changes in the alk gene because there is no standard treatment for recurrent neuroblastoma in patients first treated for high risk neuroblastoma patients may want to consider a clinical trial for information about clinical trials please see the nci website patients with recurrent cns neuroblastoma treatment for neuroblastoma that recurs comes back in the central nervous system cns brain and spinal cord may include the following surgery to remove the tumor in the cns followed by radiation therapy a clinical trial of a new therapy treatments being studied for progressive recurrent neuroblastoma some of the treatments being studied in clinical trials for neuroblastoma that recurs comes back or progresses grows spreads or does not respond to treatment include the following combination chemotherapy and monoclonal antibody therapy dinutuximab lenalidomide and monoclonal antibody therapy dinutuximab with or without isotretinoin iodine 131 mibg given alone or with other anticancer drugs immunotherapy vaccine therapy tyrosine kinase inhibitor crizotinib and combination chemotherapy targeted therapy with an antibody drug conjugate lorvotuzumab mertansine
Keywords: neuroblastoma, cancer, therapy, cell, trial, clinical, chemotherapy, radiation, patient, tumor


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Question: what research or clinical trials is being done for neuroblastoma
Answer: new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials this summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials it may not mention every new treatment being studied information about clinical trials is available from the nci website immunotherapy immunotherapy is a treatment that uses the patients immune system to fight cancer substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost direct or restore the bodys natural defenses against cancer this type of cancer treatment is also called biotherapy or biological therapy vaccine therapy uses a substance to stimulate the immune system to destroy a tumor vaccine therapy is being studied to treat neuroblastoma that has come back after treatment other drug therapy lenalidomide is a type of angiogenesis inhibitor it prevents the growth of new blood vessels that are needed by a tumor to grow patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials
Keywords: trial, clinical, cancer, patient, new, part, treatment, therapy, standard, studied


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Question: what is are parathyroid cancer
Answer: key points parathyroid cancer is a rare disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of a parathyroid gland having certain inherited disorders can increase the risk of developing parathyroid cancer signs and symptoms of parathyroid cancer include weakness feeling tired and a lump in the neck tests that examine the neck and blood are used to detect find and diagnose parathyroid cancer certain factors affect prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options parathyroid cancer is a rare disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of a parathyroid gland the parathyroid glands are four pea sized organs found in the neck near the thyroid gland the parathyroid glands make parathyroid hormone pth or parathormone pth helps the body use and store calcium to keep the calcium in the blood at normal levels a parathyroid gland may become overactive and make too much pth a condition called hyperparathyroidism hyperparathyroidism can occur when a benign tumor noncancer called an adenoma forms on one of the parathyroid glands and causes it to grow and become overactive sometimes hyperparathyroidism can be caused by parathyroid cancer but this is very rare the extra pth causes the calcium stored in the bones to move into the blood the intestines to absorb more calcium from the food we eat this condition is called hypercalcemia too much calcium in the blood the hypercalcemia caused by hyperparathyroidism is more serious and life threatening than parathyroid cancer itself and treating hypercalcemia is as important as treating the cancer
Keywords: parathyroid, cancer, gland, calcium, blood, hyperparathyroidism, pth, form, hypercalcemia, neck


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Question: who is at risk for parathyroid cancer
Answer: having certain inherited disorders can increase the risk of developing parathyroid cancer anything that increases the chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor risk factors for parathyroid cancer include the following rare disorders that are inherited passed down from parent to child familial isolated hyperparathyroidism fihp multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 men1 syndrome treatment with radiation therapy may increase the risk of developing a parathyroid adenoma
Keywords: risk, parathyroid, cancer, increase, developing, disorder, factor, inherited, chance, child


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Question: what are the symptoms of parathyroid cancer
Answer: signs and symptoms of parathyroid cancer include weakness feeling tired and a lump in the neck most parathyroid cancer signs and symptoms are caused by the hypercalcemia that develops signs and symptoms of hypercalcemia include the following weakness feeling very tired nausea and vomiting loss of appetite weight loss for no known reason being much more thirsty than usual urinating much more than usual constipation trouble thinking clearly other signs and symptoms of parathyroid cancer include the following pain in the abdomen side or back that doesn t go away pain in the bones a broken bone a lump in the neck change in voice such as hoarseness trouble swallowing other conditions may cause the same signs and symptoms as parathyroid cancer check with your doctor if you have any of these problems
Keywords: symptom, cancer, parathyroid, sign, include, bone, feeling, following, hypercalcemia, loss


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Question: what is the outlook for parathyroid cancer
Answer: certain factors affect prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options the prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options depend on the following whether the calcium level in the blood can be controlled the stage of the cancer whether the tumor and the capsule around the tumor can be completely removed by surgery the patient s general health
Keywords: cancer, chance, option, prognosis, recovery, tumor, whether, affect, certain, completely


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Question: what are the stages of parathyroid cancer
Answer: key points after parathyroid cancer has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread to other parts of the body there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body there is no standard staging process for parathyroid cancer after parathyroid cancer has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread to other parts of the body the process used to find out if cancer has spread to other parts of the body is called staging the following imaging tests may be used to determine if cancer has spread to other parts of the body such as the lungs liver bone heart pancreas or lymph nodes ct scan cat scan a procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body taken from different angles the pictures are made by a computer linked to an x ray machine a dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly this procedure is also called computed tomography computerized tomography or computerized axial tomography mri magnetic resonance imaging a procedure that uses a magnet radio waves and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body this procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging nmri there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer can spread through tissue the lymph system and the blood tissue the cancer spreads from where it began by growing into nearby areas lymph system the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the lymph system the cancer travels through the lymph vessels to other parts of the body blood the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the blood the cancer travels through the blood vessels to other parts of the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body when cancer spreads to another part of the body it is called metastasis cancer cells break away from where they began the primary tumor and travel through the lymph system or blood lymph system the cancer gets into the lymph system travels through the lymph vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body blood the cancer gets into the blood travels through the blood vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body the metastatic tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor for example if parathyroid cancer spreads to the lung the cancer cells in the lung are actually parathyroid cancer cells the disease is metastatic parathyroid cancer not lung cancer there is no standard staging process for parathyroid cancer parathyroid cancer is described as either localized or metastatic localized parathyroid cancer is found in a parathyroid gland and may have spread to nearby tissues metastatic parathyroid cancer has spread to other parts of the body such as the lungs liver bone sac around the heart pancreas or lymph nodes
Keywords: cancer, body, spread, parathyroid, part, lymph, blood, tumor, began, system


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Question: what are the treatments for parathyroid cancer
Answer: key points there are different types of treatment for patients with parathyroid cancer treatment includes control of hypercalcemia too much calcium in the blood in patients who have an overactive parathyroid gland four types of standard treatment are used surgery radiation therapy chemotherapy supportive care new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment follow up tests may be needed there are different types of treatment for patients with parathyroid cancer different types of treatment are available for patients with parathyroid cancer some treatments are standard the currently used treatment and some are being tested in clinical trials a treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer when clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment the new treatment may become the standard treatment patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment treatment includes control of hypercalcemia too much calcium in the blood in patients who have an overactive parathyroid gland in order to reduce the amount of parathyroid hormone that is being made and control the level of calcium in the blood as much of the tumor as possible is removed in surgery for patients who cannot have surgery medication may be used four types of standard treatment are used surgery surgery removing the cancer in an operation is the most common treatment for parathyroid cancer that is in the parathyroid glands or has spread to other parts of the body because parathyroid cancer grows very slowly cancer that has spread to other parts of the body may be removed by surgery in order to cure the patient or control the effects of the disease for a long time before surgery treatment is given to control hypercalcemia the following surgical procedures may be used en bloc resection surgery to remove the entire parathyroid gland and the capsule around it sometimes lymph nodes half of the thyroid gland on the same side of the body as the cancer and muscles tissues and a nerve in the neck are also removed tumor debulking a surgical procedure in which as much of the tumor as possible is removed some tumors cannot be completely removed metastasectomy surgery to remove any cancer that has spread to distant organs such as the lung surgery for parathyroid cancer sometimes damages nerves of the vocal cords there are treatments to help with speech problems caused by this nerve damage radiation therapy radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high energy x rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing there are two types of radiation therapy external radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles seeds wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer the way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated external radiation therapy is used to treat parathyroid cancer chemotherapy chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing when chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body systemic chemotherapy when chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid an organ or a body cavity such as the abdomen the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas regional chemotherapy the way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated supportive care supportive care is given to lessen the problems caused by the disease or its treatment supportive care for hypercalcemia caused by parathyroid cancer may include the following intravenous iv fluids drugs that increase how much urine the body makes drugs that stop the body from absorbing calcium from the food we eat drugs that stop the parathyroid gland from making parathyroid hormone new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials follow up tests may be needed some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working decisions about whether to continue change or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended the results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back these tests are sometimes called follow up tests or check ups parathyroid cancer often recurs patients should have regular check ups for the rest of their lives to find and treat recurrences early treatment options for parathyroid cancer localized parathyroid cancer treatment of localized parathyroid cancer may include the following surgery en bloc resection surgery followed by radiation therapy radiation therapy supportive care to treat hypercalcemia too much calcium in the blood check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with localized parathyroid cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website metastatic parathyroid cancer treatment of metastatic parathyroid cancer may include the following surgery metastasectomy to remove cancer from the places where it has spread surgery followed by radiation therapy radiation therapy chemotherapy supportive care to treat hypercalcemia too much calcium in the blood check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with metastatic parathyroid cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website recurrent parathyroid cancer treatment of recurrent parathyroid cancer may include the following surgery metastasectomy to remove cancer from the places where it has recurred surgery tumor debulking surgery followed by radiation therapy radiation therapy chemotherapy supportive care to treat hypercalcemia too much calcium in the blood check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with recurrent parathyroid cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website
Keywords: cancer, trial, clinical, parathyroid, patient, surgery, radiation, therapy, type, test


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Question: what research or clinical trials is being done for parathyroid cancer
Answer: new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials
Keywords: trial, clinical, cancer, patient, part, new, treatment, research, standard, taking


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Question: what are the stages of childhood craniopharyngioma
Answer: the process used to find out if cancer has spread within the brain or to other parts of the body is called staging there is no standard system for staging childhood craniopharyngioma craniopharyngioma is described as newly diagnosed disease or recurrent disease the results of the tests and procedures done to diagnose craniopharyngioma are used to help make decisions about treatment
Keywords: craniopharyngioma, childhood, staging, used, body, brain, called, cancer, diagnose, diagnosed


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Question: what is are melanoma
Answer: key points melanoma is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in melanocytes cells that color the skin there are different types of cancer that start in the skin melanoma can occur anywhere on the skin unusual moles exposure to sunlight and health history can affect the risk of melanoma signs of melanoma include a change in the way a mole or pigmented area looks tests that examine the skin are used to detect find and diagnose melanoma certain factors affect prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options melanoma is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in melanocytes cells that color the skin the skin is the bodys largest organ it protects against heat sunlight injury and infection skin also helps control body temperature and stores water fat and vitamin d the skin has several layers but the two main layers are the epidermis upper or outer layer and the dermis lower or inner layer skin cancer begins in the epidermis which is made up of three kinds of cells squamous cells thin flat cells that form the top layer of the epidermis basal cells round cells under the squamous cells melanocytes cells that make melanin and are found in the lower part of the epidermis melanin is the pigment that gives skin its natural color when skin is exposed to the sun or artificial light melanocytes make more pigment and cause the skin to darken the number of new cases of melanoma has been increasing over the last 40 years melanoma is most common in adults but it is sometimes found in children and adolescents see the pdq summary on unusual cancers of childhood treatment for more information on melanoma in children and adolescents there are different types of cancer that start in the skin there are two forms of skin cancer melanoma and nonmelanoma melanoma is a rare form of skin cancer it is more likely to invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body than other types of skin cancer when melanoma starts in the skin it is called cutaneous melanoma melanoma may also occur in mucous membranes thin moist layers of tissue that cover surfaces such as the lips this pdq summary is about cutaneous skin melanoma and melanoma that affects the mucous membranes the most common types of skin cancer are basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma they are nonmelanoma skin cancers nonmelanoma skin cancers rarely spread to other parts of the body see the pdq summary on skin cancer treatment for more information on basal cell and squamous cell skin cancer melanoma can occur anywhere on the skin in men melanoma is often found on the trunk the area from the shoulders to the hips or the head and neck in women melanoma forms most often on the arms and legs when melanoma occurs in the eye it is called intraocular or ocular melanoma see the pdq summary on intraocular uveal melanoma treatment for more information
Keywords: skin, melanoma, cell, cancer, form, layer, epidermis, pdq, squamous, summary


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Question: who is at risk for melanoma
Answer: unusual moles exposure to sunlight and health history can affect the risk of melanoma anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer not having risk factors doesn t mean that you will not get cancer talk with your doctor if you think you may be at risk risk factors for melanoma include the following having a fair complexion which includes the following fair skin that freckles and burns easily does not tan or tans poorly blue or green or other light colored eyes red or blond hair being exposed to natural sunlight or artificial sunlight such as from tanning beds over long periods of time being exposed to certain factors in the environment in the air your home or workplace and your food and water some of the environmental risk factors for melanoma are radiation solvents vinyl chloride and pcbs having a history of many blistering sunburns especially as a child or teenager having several large or many small moles having a family history of unusual moles atypical nevus syndrome having a family or personal history of melanoma being white having a weakened immune system having certain changes in the genes that are linked to melanoma being white or having a fair complexion increases the risk of melanoma but anyone can have melanoma including people with dark skin see the following pdq summaries for more information on risk factors for melanoma genetics of skin cancer skin cancer prevention
Keywords: risk, melanoma, factor, cancer, history, skin, fair, following, mole, sunlight


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Question: how to diagnose melanoma
Answer: tests that examine the skin are used to detect find and diagnose melanoma if a mole or pigmented area of the skin changes or looks abnormal the following tests and procedures can help find and diagnose melanoma skin exam a doctor or nurse checks the skin for moles birthmarks or other pigmented areas that look abnormal in color size shape or texture biopsy a procedure to remove the abnormal tissue and a small amount of normal tissue around it a pathologist looks at the tissue under a microscope to check for cancer cells it can be hard to tell the difference between a colored mole and an early melanoma lesion patients may want to have the sample of tissue checked by a second pathologist if the abnormal mole or lesion is cancer the sample of tissue may also be tested for certain gene changes it is important that abnormal areas of the skin not be shaved off or cauterized destroyed with a hot instrument an electric current or a caustic substance because cancer cells that remain may grow and spread see the pdq summary on skin cancer screening for more information
Keywords: skin, abnormal, tissue, cancer, melanoma, mole, area, diagnose, look, pathologist


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Question: what is the outlook for melanoma
Answer: certain factors affect prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options the prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options depend on the following the thickness of the tumor and where it is in the body how quickly the cancer cells are dividing whether there was bleeding or ulceration of the tumor how much cancer is in the lymph nodes the number of places cancer has spread to in the body the level of lactate dehydrogenase ldh in the blood whether the cancer has certain mutations changes in a gene called braf the patients age and general health
Keywords: cancer, body, certain, chance, option, prognosis, recovery, tumor, whether, braf


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Question: what are the stages of melanoma
Answer: key points after melanoma has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the skin or to other parts of the body there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body the method used to stage melanoma is based mainly on the thickness of the tumor and whether cancer has spread to lymph nodes or other parts of the body the following stages are used for melanoma stage 0 melanoma in situ stage i stage ii stage iii stage iv after melanoma has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the skin or to other parts of the body the process used to find out whether cancer has spread within the skin or to other parts of the body is called staging the information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease it is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment the following tests and procedures may be used in the staging process physical exam and history an exam of the body to check general signs of health including checking for signs of disease such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual a history of the patients health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken lymph node mapping and sentinel lymph node biopsy procedures in which a radioactive substance and or blue dye is injected near the tumor the substance or dye flows through lymph ducts to the sentinel node or nodes the first lymph node or nodes where cancer cells are likely to spread the surgeon removes only the nodes with the radioactive substance or dye a pathologist views a sample of tissue under a microscope to check for cancer cells if no cancer cells are found it may not be necessary to remove more nodes ct scan cat scan a procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body taken from different angles the pictures are made by a computer linked to an x ray machine a dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly this procedure is also called computed tomography computerized tomography or computerized axial tomography for melanoma pictures may be taken of the chest abdomen and pelvis pet scan positron emission tomography scan a procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body a small amount of radioactive glucose sugar is injected into a vein the pet scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do mri magnetic resonance imaging with gadolinium a procedure that uses a magnet radio waves and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body such as the brain a substance called gadolinium is injected into a vein the gadolinium collects around the cancer cells so they show up brighter in the picture this procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging nmri blood chemistry studies a procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body for melanoma the blood is checked for an enzyme called lactate dehydrogenase ldh ldh levels that are higher than normal may be a sign of melanoma the results of these tests are viewed together with the results of the tumor biopsy to find out the stage of the melanoma there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer can spread through tissue the lymph system and the blood tissue the cancer spreads from where it began by growing into nearby areas lymph system the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the lymph system the cancer travels through the lymph vessels to other parts of the body blood the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the blood the cancer travels through the blood vessels to other parts of the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body when cancer spreads to another part of the body it is called metastasis cancer cells break away from where they began the primary tumor and travel through the lymph system or blood lymph system the cancer gets into the lymph system travels through the lymph vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body blood the cancer gets into the blood travels through the blood vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body the metastatic tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor for example if melanoma spreads to the lung the cancer cells in the lung are actually melanoma cells the disease is metastatic melanoma not lung cancer the method used to stage melanoma is based mainly on the thickness of the tumor and whether cancer has spread to lymph nodes or other parts of the body the staging of melanoma depends on the following the thickness of the tumor the thickness is described using the breslow scale whether the tumor is ulcerated has broken through the skin whether the tumor has spread to the lymph nodes and if the lymph nodes are joined together matted whether the tumor has spread to other parts of the body the following stages are used for melanoma stage 0 melanoma in situ in stage 0 abnormal melanocytes are found in the epidermis these abnormal melanocytes may become cancer and spread into nearby normal tissue stage 0 is also called melanoma in situ stage i in stage i cancer has formed stage i is divided into stages ia and ib stage ia in stage ia the tumor is not more than 1 millimeter thick with no ulceration stage ib in stage ib the tumor is either not more than 1 millimeter thick and it has ulceration or more than 1 but not more than 2 millimeters thick with no ulceration stage ii stage ii is divided into stages iia iib and iic stage iia in stage iia the tumor is either more than 1 but not more than 2 millimeters thick with ulceration or more than 2 but not more than 4 millimeters thick with no ulceration stage iib in stage iib the tumor is either more than 2 but not more than 4 millimeters thick with ulceration or more than 4 millimeters thick with no ulceration stage iic in stage iic the tumor is more than 4 millimeters thick with ulceration stage iii in stage iii the tumor may be any thickness with or without ulceration one or more of the following is true cancer has spread to one or more lymph nodes lymph nodes are joined together matted cancer is in a lymph vessel between the primary tumor and nearby lymph nodes the cancer is more than 2 centimeters away from the primary tumor very small tumors are found on or under the skin not more than 2 centimeters away from the primary tumor stage iv in stage iv the cancer has spread to other places in the body such as the lung liver brain bone soft tissue or gastrointestinal gi tract cancer may have spread to places in the skin far away from where it first started
Keywords: stage, cancer, tumor, body, spread, lymph, melanoma, node, part, cell


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Question: what are the treatments for melanoma
Answer: key points there are different types of treatment for patients with melanoma five types of standard treatment are used surgery chemotherapy radiation therapy immunotherapy targeted therapy new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials treatment for melanoma may cause side effects patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment follow up tests may be needed there are different types of treatment for patients with melanoma different types of treatment are available for patients with melanoma some treatments are standard the currently used treatment and some are being tested in clinical trials a treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer when clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment the new treatment may become the standard treatment patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment five types of standard treatment are used surgery surgery to remove the tumor is the primary treatment of all stages of melanoma a wide local excision is used to remove the melanoma and some of the normal tissue around it skin grafting taking skin from another part of the body to replace the skin that is removed may be done to cover the wound caused by surgery it is important to know whether cancer has spread to the lymph nodes lymph node mapping and sentinel lymph node biopsy are done to check for cancer in the sentinel lymph node the first lymph node the cancer is likely to spread to from the tumor during surgery a radioactive substance and or blue dye is injected near the tumor the substance or dye flows through the lymph ducts to the lymph nodes the first lymph node to receive the substance or dye is removed a pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells if cancer cells are found more lymph nodes will be removed and tissue samples will be checked for signs of cancer this is called a lymphadenectomy even if the doctor removes all the melanoma that can be seen at the time of surgery some patients may be given chemotherapy after surgery to kill any cancer cells that are left chemotherapy given after surgery to lower the risk that the cancer will come back is called adjuvant therapy surgery to remove cancer that has spread to the lymph nodes lung gastrointestinal gi tract bone or brain may be done to improve the patients quality of life by controlling symptoms chemotherapy chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing when chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body systemic chemotherapy when chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid an organ or a body cavity such as the abdomen the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas regional chemotherapy one type of regional chemotherapy is hyperthermic isolated limb perfusion with this method anticancer drugs go directly to the arm or leg the cancer is in the flow of blood to and from the limb is temporarily stopped with a tourniquet a warm solution with the anticancer drug is put directly into the blood of the limb this gives a high dose of drugs to the area where the cancer is the way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated see drugs approved for melanoma for more information radiation therapy radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high energy x rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing there are two types of radiation therapy external radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles seeds wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer the way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated external radiation therapy is used to treat melanoma and may also be used as palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life immunotherapy immunotherapy is a treatment that uses the patients immune system to fight cancer substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost direct or restore the bodys natural defenses against cancer this type of cancer treatment is also called biotherapy or biologic therapy the following types of immunotherapy are being used in the treatment of melanoma immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy some types of immune cells such as t cells and some cancer cells have certain proteins called checkpoint proteins on their surface that keep immune responses in check when cancer cells have large amounts of these proteins they will not be attacked and killed by t cells immune checkpoint inhibitors block these proteins and the ability of t cells to kill cancer cells is increased they are used to treat some patients with advanced melanoma or tumors that cannot be removed by surgery there are two types of immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy ctla 4 inhibitor ctl4 a is a protein on the surface of t cells that helps keep the bodys immune responses in check when ctla 4 attaches to another protein called b7 on a cancer cell it stops the t cell from killing the cancer cell ctla 4 inhibitors attach to ctla 4 and allow the t cells to kill cancer cells ipilimumab is a type of ctla 4 inhibitor pd 1 inhibitor pd 1 is a protein on the surface of t cells that helps keep the bodys immune responses in check when pd 1 attaches to another protein called pdl 1 on a cancer cell it stops the t cell from killing the cancer cell pd 1 inhibitors attach to pdl 1 and allow the t cells to kill cancer cells pembrolizumab and nivolumab are types of pd 1 inhibitors interferon interferon affects the division of cancer cells and can slow tumor growth interleukin 2 il 2 il 2 boosts the growth and activity of many immune cells especially lymphocytes a type of white blood cell lymphocytes can attack and kill cancer cells tumor necrosis factor tnf therapy tnf is a protein made by white blood cells in response to an antigen or infection tnf is made in the laboratory and used as a treatment to kill cancer cells it is being studied in the treatment of melanoma see drugs approved for melanoma for more information targeted therapy targeted therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to attack cancer cells targeted therapies usually cause less harm to normal cells than chemotherapy or radiation therapy do the following types of targeted therapy are used or being studied in the treatment of melanoma signal transduction inhibitor therapy signal transduction inhibitors block signals that are passed from one molecule to another inside a cell blocking these signals may kill cancer cells vemurafenib dabrafenib trametinib and cobimetinib are signal transduction inhibitors used to treat some patients with advanced melanoma or tumors that cannot be removed by surgery vemurafenib and dabrafenib block the activity of proteins made by mutant braf genes trametinib and cobimetinib affect the growth and survival of cancer cells oncolytic virus therapy a type of targeted therapy that is used in the treatment of melanoma oncolytic virus therapy uses a virus that infects and breaks down cancer cells but not normal cells radiation therapy or chemotherapy may be given after oncolytic virus therapy to kill more cancer cells angiogenesis inhibitors a type of targeted therapy that is being studied in the treatment of melanoma angiogenesis inhibitors block the growth of new blood vessels in cancer treatment they may be given to prevent the growth of new blood vessels that tumors need to grow new targeted therapies and combinations of therapies are being studied in the treatment of melanoma see drugs approved for melanoma for more information new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website treatment for melanoma may cause side effects for information about side effects caused by treatment for cancer see our side effects page patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials follow up tests may be needed some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working decisions about whether to continue change or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended the results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back these tests are sometimes called follow up tests or check ups treatment options by stage stage 0 melanoma in situ treatment of stage 0 is usually surgery to remove the area of abnormal cells and a small amount of normal tissue around it check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage 0 melanoma for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage i melanoma treatment of stage i melanoma may include the following surgery to remove the tumor and some of the normal tissue around it sometimes lymph node mapping and removal of lymph nodes is also done a clinical trial of new ways to find cancer cells in the lymph nodes check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage i melanoma for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage ii melanoma treatment of stage ii melanoma may include the following surgery to remove the tumor and some of the normal tissue around it sometimes lymph node mapping and sentinel lymph node biopsy are done to check for cancer in the lymph nodes at the same time as the surgery to remove the tumor if cancer is found in the sentinel lymph node more lymph nodes may be removed surgery followed by immunotherapy with interferon if there is a high risk that the cancer will come back a clinical trial of new types of treatment to be used after surgery check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage ii melanoma for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage iii melanoma that can be removed by surgery treatment of stage iii melanoma that can be removed by surgery may include the following surgery to remove the tumor and some of the normal tissue around it skin grafting may be done to cover the wound caused by surgery sometimes lymph node mapping and sentinel lymph node biopsy are done to check for cancer in the lymph nodes at the same time as the surgery to remove the tumor if cancer is found in the sentinel lymph node more lymph nodes may be removed surgery followed by immunotherapy with ipilimumab or interferon if there is a high risk that the cancer will come back a clinical trial of immunotherapy or targeted therapy to be used after surgery check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage iii melanoma for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage iii melanoma that cannot be removed by surgery stage iv melanoma and recurrent melanoma treatment of stage iii melanoma that cannot be removed by surgery stage iv melanoma and recurrent melanoma may include the following immunotherapy with ipilimumab pembrolizumab nivolumab or interleukin 2 il 2 sometimes ipilimumab and nivolumab are given together targeted therapy with vemurafenib dabrafenib trametinib or cobimetinib sometimes vemurafenib and cobimetinib or dabrafenib and trametinib are given together injections into the tumor such as oncolytic virus therapy chemotherapy palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve the quality of life this may include surgery to remove lymph nodes or tumors in the lung gastrointestinal gi tract bone or brain radiation therapy to the brain spinal cord or bone treatments that are being studied in clinical trials for stage iii melanoma that cannot be removed by surgery stage iv melanoma and recurrent melanoma include the following immunotherapy alone or in combination with other therapies such as targeted therapy targeted therapy such as signal transduction inhibitors angiogenesis inhibitors oncolytic virus therapy or drugs that target certain gene mutations these may be given alone or in combination surgery to remove all known cancer regional chemotherapy hyperthermic isolated limb perfusion some patients may also have immunotherapy with tumor necrosis factor systemic chemotherapy check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage iv melanoma and recurrent melanoma for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website
Keywords: cancer, trial, cell, clinical, melanoma, therapy, surgery, type, patient, stage


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Question: what research or clinical trials is being done for melanoma
Answer: new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website treatment for melanoma may cause side effects for information about side effects caused by treatment for cancer see our side effects page patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials follow up tests may be needed some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working decisions about whether to continue change or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended the results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back these tests are sometimes called follow up tests or check ups
Keywords: trial, clinical, cancer, test, patient, part, new, done, effect, side


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Question: what is are colorectal cancer
Answer: key points colorectal cancer is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the colon or the rectum colorectal cancer is the second leading cause of death from cancer in the united states different factors increase or decrease the risk of getting colorectal cancer colorectal cancer is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the colon or the rectum the colon and rectum are parts of the body s digestive system the digestive system removes and processes nutrients vitamins minerals carbohydrates fats proteins and water from foods and helps pass waste material out of the body the digestive system is made up of the mouth throat esophagus stomach and the small and large intestines the colon large bowel is the first part of the large intestine and is about 5 feet long together the rectum and anal canal make up the last part of the large intestine and are 6 8 inches long the anal canal ends at the anus the opening of the large intestine to the outside of the body cancer that begins in the colon is called colon cancer and cancer that begins in the rectum is called rectal cancer cancer that begins in either of these organs may also be called colorectal cancer see the following pdq summaries for more information about colorectal cancer colorectal cancer prevention colon cancer treatment rectal cancer treatment genetics of colorectal cancer colorectal cancer is the second leading cause of death from cancer in the united states the number of new colorectal cancer cases and the number of deaths from colorectal cancer are decreasing a little bit each year but in adults younger than 50 years there has been a small increase in the number of new cases each year since 1998 colorectal cancer is found more often in men than in women
Keywords: cancer, colorectal, colon, large, rectum, intestine, begin, death, digestive, year


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Question: who is at risk for colorectal cancer
Answer: different factors increase or decrease the risk of getting colorectal cancer anything that increases your chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor anything that decreases your chance of getting a disease is called a protective factor for information about risk factors and protective factors for colorectal cancer see the pdq summary on colorectal cancer prevention
Keywords: factor, cancer, colorectal, risk, getting, anything, called, chance, decrease, protective


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Question: what is are merkel cell carcinoma
Answer: key points merkel cell carcinoma is a very rare disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the skin sun exposure and having a weak immune system can affect the risk of merkel cell carcinoma merkel cell carcinoma usually appears as a single painless lump on sun exposed skin tests and procedures that examine the skin are used to detect find and diagnose merkel cell carcinoma certain factors affect prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options merkel cell carcinoma is a very rare disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the skin merkel cells are found in the top layer of the skin these cells are very close to the nerve endings that receive the sensation of touch merkel cell carcinoma also called neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin or trabecular cancer is a very rare type of skin cancer that forms when merkel cells grow out of control merkel cell carcinoma starts most often in areas of skin exposed to the sun especially the head and neck as well as the arms legs and trunk merkel cell carcinoma tends to grow quickly and to metastasize spread at an early stage it usually spreads first to nearby lymph nodes and then may spread to lymph nodes or skin in distant parts of the body lungs brain bones or other organs
Keywords: cell, merkel, carcinoma, skin, cancer, form, rare, spread, sun, node


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Question: who is at risk for merkel cell carcinoma
Answer: un exposure and having a weak immune system can affect the risk of merkel cell carcinoma anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer not having risk factors doesn t mean that you will not get cancer talk with your doctor if you think you may be at risk risk factors for merkel cell carcinoma include the following being exposed to a lot of natural sunlight being exposed to artificial sunlight such as from tanning beds or psoralen and ultraviolet a puva therapy for psoriasis having an immune system weakened by disease such as chronic lymphocytic leukemia or hiv infection taking drugs that make the immune system less active such as after an organ transplant having a history of other types of cancer being older than 50 years male or white
Keywords: risk, factor, cancer, carcinoma, cell, immune, merkel, system, mean, sunlight


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Question: what is the outlook for merkel cell carcinoma
Answer: certain factors affect prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options the prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options depend on the following the stage of the cancer the size of the tumor and whether it has spread to the lymph nodes or other parts of the body where the cancer is in the body whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred come back the patient s age and general health prognosis also depends on how deeply the tumor has grown into the skin
Keywords: cancer, prognosis, body, chance, option, recovery, tumor, whether, certain, come


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Question: what are the stages of merkel cell carcinoma
Answer: key points after merkel cell carcinoma has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread to other parts of the body there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body the following stages are used for merkel cell carcinoma stage 0 carcinoma in situ stage ia stage ib stage iia stage iib stage iic stage iiia stage iiib stage iv after merkel cell carcinoma has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread to other parts of the body the process used to find out if cancer has spread to other parts of the body is called staging the information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease it is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment the following tests and procedures may be used in the staging process ct scan cat scan a procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body taken from different angles the pictures are made by a computer linked to an x ray machine a dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly a ct scan of the chest and abdomen may be used to check for primary small cell lung cancer or to find merkel cell carcinoma that has spread a ct scan of the head and neck may also be used to find merkel cell carcinoma that has spread to the lymph nodes this procedure is also called computed tomography computerized tomography or computerized axial tomography mri magnetic resonance imaging a procedure that uses a magnet radio waves and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body this procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging nmri pet scan positron emission tomography scan a procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body a small amount of radioactive glucose sugar is injected into a vein the pet scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do lymph node biopsy there are two main types of lymph node biopsy used to stage merkel cell carcinoma sentinel lymph node biopsy the removal of the sentinel lymph node during surgery the sentinel lymph node is the first lymph node to receive lymphatic drainage from a tumor it is the first lymph node the cancer is likely to spread to from the tumor a radioactive substance and or blue dye is injected near the tumor the substance or dye flows through the lymph ducts to the lymph nodes the first lymph node to receive the substance or dye is removed a pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells if cancer cells are not found it may not be necessary to remove more lymph nodes lymph node dissection a surgical procedure in which the lymph nodes are removed and a sample of tissue is checked under a microscope for signs of cancer for a regional lymph node dissection some of the lymph nodes in the tumor area are removed for a radical lymph node dissection most or all of the lymph nodes in the tumor area are removed this procedure is also called lymphadenectomy immunohistochemistry a test that uses antibodies to check for certain antigens in a sample of tissue the antibody is usually linked to a radioactive substance or a dye that causes the tissue to light up under a microscope this type of test may be used to tell the difference between different types of cancer there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer can spread through tissue the lymph system and the blood tissue the cancer spreads from where it began by growing into nearby areas lymph system the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the lymph system the cancer travels through the lymph vessels to other parts of the body blood the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the blood the cancer travels through the blood vessels to other parts of the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body when cancer spreads to another part of the body it is called metastasis cancer cells break away from where they began the primary tumor and travel through the lymph system or blood lymph system the cancer gets into the lymph system travels through the lymph vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body blood the cancer gets into the blood travels through the blood vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body the metastatic tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor for example if merkel cell carcinoma spreads to the liver the cancer cells in the liver are actually cancerous merkel cells the disease is metastatic merkel cell carcinoma not liver cancer the following stages are used for merkel cell carcinoma stage 0 carcinoma in situ in stage 0 the tumor is a group of abnormal cells that remain in the place where they first formed and have not spread these abnormal cells may become cancer and spread to lymph nodes or distant parts of the body stage ia in stage ia the tumor is 2 centimeters or smaller at its widest point and no cancer is found when the lymph nodes are checked under a microscope stage ib in stage ib the tumor is 2 centimeters or smaller at its widest point and no swollen lymph nodes are found by a physical exam or imaging tests stage iia in stage iia the tumor is larger than 2 centimeters and no cancer is found when the lymph nodes are checked under a microscope stage iib in stage iib the tumor is larger than 2 centimeters and no swollen lymph nodes are found by a physical exam or imaging tests stage iic in stage iic the tumor may be any size and has spread to nearby bone muscle connective tissue or cartilage it has not spread to lymph nodes or distant parts of the body stage iiia in stage iiia the tumor may be any size and may have spread to nearby bone muscle connective tissue or cartilage cancer is found in the lymph nodes when they are checked under a microscope stage iiib in stage iiib the tumor may be any size and may have spread to nearby bone muscle connective tissue or cartilage cancer has spread to the lymph nodes near the tumor and is found by a physical exam or imaging test the lymph nodes are removed and cancer is found in the lymph nodes when they are checked under a microscope there may also be a second tumor which is either between the primary tumor and nearby lymph nodes or farther away from the center of the body than the primary tumor is stage iv in stage iv the tumor may be any size and has spread to distant parts of the body such as the liver lung bone or brain
Keywords: lymph, stage, cancer, node, tumor, spread, cell, body, part, carcinoma


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Question: what are the treatments for merkel cell carcinoma
Answer: key points there are different types of treatment for patients with merkel cell carcinoma three types of standard treatment are used surgery radiation therapy chemotherapy new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials treatment for merkel cell carcinoma may cause side effects patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment follow up tests may be needed there are different types of treatment for patients with merkel cell carcinoma different types of treatments are available for patients with merkel cell carcinoma some treatments are standard the currently used treatment and some are being tested in clinical trials a treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer when clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment the new treatment may become the standard treatment patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment three types of standard treatment are used surgery one or more of the following surgical procedures may be used to treat merkel cell carcinoma wide local excision the cancer is cut from the skin along with some of the tissue around it a sentinel lymph node biopsy may be done during the wide local excision procedure if there is cancer in the lymph nodes a lymph node dissection also may be done lymph node dissection a surgical procedure in which the lymph nodes are removed and a sample of tissue is checked under a microscope for signs of cancer for a regional lymph node dissection some of the lymph nodes in the tumor area are removed for a radical lymph node dissection most or all of the lymph nodes in the tumor area are removed this procedure is also called lymphadenectomy even if the doctor removes all the cancer that can be seen at the time of the surgery some patients may be given chemotherapy or radiation therapy after surgery to kill any cancer cells that are left treatment given after the surgery to lower the risk that the cancer will come back is called adjuvant therapy radiation therapy radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high energy x rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing there are two types of radiation therapy external radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles seeds wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer the way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated external radiation therapy is used to treat merkel cell carcinoma and may also be used as palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life chemotherapy chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping the cells from dividing when chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body systemic chemotherapy when chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid an organ or a body cavity such as the abdomen the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas regional chemotherapy the way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials treatment for merkel cell carcinoma may cause side effects for information about side effects caused by treatment for cancer see our side effects page patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials follow up tests may be needed some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working decisions about whether to continue change or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended the results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back these tests are sometimes called follow up tests or check ups treatment options by stage stage i and stage ii merkel cell carcinoma treatment of stage i and stage ii merkel cell carcinoma may include the following surgery to remove the tumor such as wide local excision with or without lymph node dissection radiation therapy after surgery a clinical trial of a new treatment check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage i neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin and stage ii neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage iii merkel cell carcinoma treatment of stage iii merkel cell carcinoma may include the following wide local excision with or without lymph node dissection radiation therapy a clinical trial of chemotherapy check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage iii neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage iv merkel cell carcinoma treatment of stage iv merkel cell carcinoma may include the following as palliative treatment to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life chemotherapy surgery radiation therapy a clinical trial of a new treatment check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage iv neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website
Keywords: trial, clinical, cancer, cell, patient, carcinoma, stage, merkel, radiation, therapy


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Question: what research or clinical trials is being done for merkel cell carcinoma
Answer: new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials
Keywords: trial, clinical, cancer, patient, part, new, treatment, research, standard, taking


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Question: what is the outlook for childhood ependymoma
Answer: certain factors affect prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options the prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options depend on where the tumor has formed in the central nervous system cns whether there are certain changes in the genes or chromosomes whether any cancer cells remain after surgery to remove the tumor the type of ependymoma the age of the child when the tumor is diagnosed whether the cancer has spread to other parts of the brain or spinal cord whether the tumor has just been diagnosed or has recurred come back prognosis also depends on the type and dose of radiation therapy that is given
Keywords: tumor, whether, prognosis, cancer, certain, chance, diagnosed, ependymoma, option, type


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Question: what research or clinical trials is being done for childhood ependymoma
Answer: new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials
Keywords: trial, clinical, cancer, patient, part, new, treatment, research, standard, taking


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Question: what are the stages of childhood ependymoma
Answer: key points the area where the tumor is found and the childs age are used in place of a staging system to plan cancer treatment the information from tests and procedures done to detect find childhood ependymoma is used to plan cancer treatment the area where the tumor is found and the childs age are used in place of a staging system to plan cancer treatment staging is the process used to find out how much cancer there is and if cancer has spread there is no standard staging system for childhood ependymoma treatment is based on where the cancer is in the body and the age of the child the information from tests and procedures done to detect find childhood ependymoma is used to plan cancer treatment some of the tests used to detect childhood ependymoma are repeated after the tumor is removed by surgery see the general information section this is to find out how much tumor remains after surgery
Keywords: cancer, used, childhood, ependymoma, find, plan, staging, tumor, age, system


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Question: what are the treatments for childhood ependymoma
Answer: key points there are different types of treatment for children with ependymoma children with ependymoma should have their treatment planned by a team of health care providers who are experts in treating childhood brain tumors childhood brain and spinal cord tumors may cause signs or symptoms that begin before the cancer is diagnosed and continue for months or years some cancer treatments cause side effects months or years after treatment has ended four types of standard treatment are used surgery radiation therapy chemotherapy observation new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment follow up tests may be needed there are different types of treatment for children with ependymoma different types of treatment are available for children with ependymoma some treatments are standard the currently used treatment and some are being tested in clinical trials a treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer when clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment the new treatment may become the standard treatment because cancer in children is rare taking part in a clinical trial should be considered some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment children with ependymoma should have their treatment planned by a team of health care providers who are experts in treating childhood brain tumors treatment will be overseen by a pediatric oncologist a doctor who specializes in treating children with cancer the pediatric oncologist works with other pediatric health care providers who are experts in treating children with brain tumors and who specialize in certain areas of medicine these may include the following specialists pediatric neurosurgeon neurologist neuropathologist neuroradiologist pediatrician rehabilitation specialist radiation oncologist medical oncologist endocrinologist psychologist childhood brain and spinal cord tumors may cause signs or symptoms that begin before the cancer is diagnosed and continue for months or years childhood brain and spinal cord tumors may cause signs or symptoms that continue for months or years signs or symptoms caused by the tumor may begin before diagnosis signs or symptoms caused by treatment may begin during or right after treatment some cancer treatments cause side effects months or years after treatment has ended these are called late effects late effects of cancer treatment may include the following physical problems changes in mood feelings thinking learning or memory second cancers new types of cancer some late effects may be treated or controlled it is important to talk with your child s doctors about the effects cancer treatment can have on your child see the pdq summary on late effects of treatment for childhood cancer for more information four types of standard treatment are used surgery if the results of diagnostic tests show there may be a brain tumor a biopsy is done by removing part of the skull and using a needle to remove a sample of the brain tissue a pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to check for cancer cells if cancer cells are found the doctor will remove as much tumor as safely possible during the same surgery an mri is often done after the tumor is removed to find out whether any tumor remains if tumor remains a second surgery to remove as much of the remaining tumor as possible may be done even if the doctor removes all the cancer that can be seen at the time of the surgery some patients may be given chemotherapy or radiation therapy after surgery to kill any cancer cells that are left treatment to lower the risk that the cancer will come back after surgery is called adjuvant therapy radiation therapy radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high energy x rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing there are two types of radiation therapy external radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer certain ways of giving radiation therapy can help keep radiation from damaging nearby healthy tissue these types of radiation therapy include the following conformal radiation therapy conformal radiation therapy is a type of external radiation therapy that uses a computer to make a 3 dimensional 3 d picture of the tumor and shapes the radiation beams to fit the tumor intensity modulated radiation therapy imrt imrt is a type of 3 dimensional 3 d radiation therapy that uses a computer to make pictures of the size and shape of the tumor thin beams of radiation of different intensities strengths are aimed at the tumor from many angles proton beam radiation therapy proton beam therapy is a type of high energy external radiation therapy a radiation therapy machine aims streams of protons tiny invisible positively charged particles at the cancer cells to kill them stereotactic radiosurgery stereotactic radiosurgery is a type of external radiation therapy a rigid head frame is attached to the skull to keep the head still during the radiation treatment a machine aims a single large dose of radiation directly at the tumor this procedure does not involve surgery it is also called stereotaxic radiosurgery radiosurgery and radiation surgery internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles seeds wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer the way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type of cancer being treated external radiation therapy is used to treat childhood ependymoma children younger than 3 years who receive radiation therapy to the brain have a higher risk of problems with growth and development than older children 3 d conformal radiation therapy and proton beam therapy are being studied in children younger than 3 years to see if the effects of radiation on growth and development are lessened chemotherapy chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing when chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body systemic chemotherapy when chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid an organ or a body cavity such as the abdomen the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas regional chemotherapy the way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type of cancer being treated observation observation is closely monitoring a patients condition without giving any treatment until signs or symptoms appear or change observation may be used to treat a child with a subependymoma who has no symptoms and whose tumor is found while treating another condition new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials follow up tests may be needed some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working decisions about whether to continue change or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended the results of these tests can show if your child s condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back these tests are sometimes called follow up tests or check ups follow up tests for childhood ependymoma include an mri magnetic resonance imaging of the brain and spinal cord every 3 months for the first 1 or 2 years after treatment after 2 years mris may be done every 6 months for the next 3 years treatment options for childhood ependymoma newly diagnosed childhood ependymoma a child with a newly diagnosed ependymoma has not had treatment for the tumor the child may have had treatment to relieve signs or symptoms caused by the tumor subependymoma treatment of newly diagnosed subependymoma who grade i is surgery observation rarely myxopapillary ependymoma treatment of newly diagnosed myxopapillary ependymoma who grade i is surgery with or without radiation therapy childhood ependymoma anaplastic ependymoma or rela fusionpositive ependymoma treatment of newly diagnosed childhood ependymoma who grade ii anaplastic ependymoma who grade iii or rela fusionpositive ependymoma who grade ii or grade iii is surgery after surgery the plan for further treatment depends on the following whether any cancer cells remain after surgery whether the cancer has spread to other parts of the brain or spinal cord the age of the child when the tumor is completely removed and cancer cells have not spread treatment may include the following radiation therapy a clinical trial of radiation therapy followed by chemotherapy a clinical trial of observation for patients whose tumor is completely removed or who have no sign of cancer after chemotherapy when part of the tumor remains after surgery but cancer cells have not spread treatment may include the following a second surgery to remove as much of the remaining tumor as possible radiation therapy chemotherapy followed by radiation therapy a clinical trial of chemotherapy given before and after radiation therapy when cancer cells have spread within the brain and spinal cord treatment may include the following radiation therapy to the brain and spinal cord treatment for children younger than 3 years of age may include the following chemotherapy radiation therapy a clinical trial of 3 dimensional 3 d conformal radiation therapy or proton beam radiation therapy check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with newly diagnosed childhood ependymoma for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your child s doctor about clinical trials that may be right for your child general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website recurrent childhood ependymoma treatment of recurrent childhood ependymoma may include the following surgery radiation therapy which may include stereotactic radiosurgery intensity modulated radiation therapy or proton beam radiation therapy chemotherapy a clinical trial of a new treatment check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with recurrent childhood ependymoma for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your child s doctor about clinical trials that may be right for your child general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website
Keywords: cancer, radiation, therapy, trial, clinical, tumor, child, ependymoma, type, childhood


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Question: who is at risk for intraocular uveal melanoma
Answer: being older and having fair skin may increase the risk of intraocular melanoma anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer not having risk factors doesnt mean that you will not get cancer talk with your doctor if you think you may be at risk risk factors for intraocular melanoma include the following having a fair complexion which includes the following fair skin that freckles and burns easily does not tan or tans poorly blue or green or other light colored eyes older age being white
Keywords: risk, factor, fair, intraocular, melanoma, cancer, following, get, mean, tan


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Question: what are the stages of intraocular uveal melanoma
Answer: key points after intraocular melanoma has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread to other parts of the body the following sizes are used to describe intraocular melanoma small medium large there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body there are two staging systems for intraocular melanoma the following stages are used for intraocular melanoma of the iris stage i stage ii stage iii stage iv the following stages are used for intraocular melanoma of the ciliary body and choroid stage i stage ii stage iii stage iv after intraocular melanoma has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread to other parts of the body the process used to find out if cancer has spread to other parts of the body is called staging the information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease it is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment the following tests and procedures may be used in the staging process blood chemistry studies a procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body an unusual higher or lower than normal amount of a substance can be a sign of disease liver function tests a procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by the liver a higher than normal amount of a substance can be a sign the cancer has spread to the liver ultrasound exam a procedure in which high energy sound waves ultrasound are bounced off internal tissues or organs such as the liver and make echoes the echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram chest x ray an x ray of the organs and bones inside the chest an x ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film making a picture of areas inside the body mri magnetic resonance imaging a procedure that uses a magnet radio waves and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body this procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging nmri ct scan cat scan a procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body such as the chest abdomen or pelvis taken from different angles the pictures are made by a computer linked to an x ray machine a dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly this procedure is also called computed tomography computerized tomography or computerized axial tomography pet scan positron emission tomography scan a procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body a very small amount of radioactive glucose sugar is injected into a vein the pet scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do sometimes a pet scan and a ct scan are done at the same time if there is any cancer this increases the chance that it will be found the following sizes are used to describe intraocular melanoma small the tumor is 5 to 16 millimeters in diameter and from 1 to 3 millimeters thick medium the tumor is 16 millimeters or smaller in diameter and from 3 1 to 8 millimeters thick large the tumor is more than 8 millimeters thick and any diameter or at least 2 millimeters thick and more than 16 millimeters in diameter though most intraocular melanoma tumors are raised some are flat these diffuse tumors grow widely across the uvea there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer can spread through tissue the lymph system and the blood tissue the cancer spreads from where it began by growing into nearby areas lymph system the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the lymph system the cancer travels through the lymph vessels to other parts of the body blood the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the blood the cancer travels through the blood vessels to other parts of the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body when cancer spreads to another part of the body it is called metastasis cancer cells break away from where they began the primary tumor and travel through the lymph system or blood lymph system the cancer gets into the lymph system travels through the lymph vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body blood the cancer gets into the blood travels through the blood vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body the metastatic tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor for example if intraocular melanoma spreads to the liver the cancer cells in the liver are actually intraocular melanoma cells the disease is metastatic intraocular melanoma not liver cancer there are two staging systems for intraocular melanoma intraocular melanoma has two staging systems the staging system used depends on where in the eye the cancer first formed iris ciliary body and choroid if intraocular melanoma spreads to the optic nerve or nearby tissue of the eye socket it is called extraocular extension the following stages are used for intraocular melanoma of the iris stage i in stage i the tumor is in the iris only and is not more than one fourth the size of the iris stage ii stage ii is divided into stages iia and iib in stage iia the tumor is in the iris only and is more than one fourth the size of the iris or is in the iris only and has caused glaucoma or has spread next to and or into the ciliary body choroid or both the tumor has caused glaucoma in stage iib the tumor has spread next to and or into the ciliary body choroid or both and has also spread into the sclera the tumor has caused glaucoma stage iii stage iii is divided into stages iiia and iiib in stage iiia the tumor has spread through the sclera to the outside of the eyeball the part of the tumor outside the eyeball is not more than 5 millimeters thick in stage iiib the tumor has spread through the sclera to the outside of the eyeball the part of the tumor outside the eyeball is more than 5 millimeters thick stage iv in stage iv the tumor may be any size and has spread to nearby lymph nodes or to other parts of the body such as the liver lung or bone or to areas under the skin the following stages are used for intraocular melanoma of the ciliary body and choroid intraocular melanoma of the ciliary body and choroid is grouped into four size categories the category depends on how wide and thick the tumor is category 1 tumors are the smallest and category 4 tumors are the biggest category 1 the tumor is not more than 12 millimeters wide and not more than 3 millimeters thick or the tumor is not more than 9 millimeters wide and 3 1 to 6 millimeters thick category 2 the tumor is 12 1 to 18 millimeters wide and not more than 3 millimeters thick or the tumor is 9 1 to 15 millimeters wide and 3 1 to 6 millimeters thick or the tumor is not more than 12 millimeters wide and 6 1 to 9 millimeters thick category 3 the tumor is 15 1 to 18 millimeters wide and 3 1 to 6 millimeters thick or the tumor is 12 1 to 18 millimeters wide and 6 1 to 9 millimeters thick or the tumor is 3 1 to 18 millimeters wide and 9 1 to 12 millimeters thick or the tumor is 9 1 to 15 millimeters wide and 12 1 to 15 millimeters thick category 4 the tumor is more than 18 millimeters wide and may be any thickness or the tumor is 15 1 to 18 millimeters wide and more than 12 millimeters thick or the tumor is 12 1 to 15 millimeters wide and more than 15 millimeters thick stage i in stage i the tumor is size category 1 and is in the choroid only stage ii stage ii is divided into stages iia and iib in stage iia the tumor is size category 1 and has spread to the ciliary body or is size category 1 and has spread through the sclera to the outside of the eyeball the part of the tumor outside the eyeball is not more than 5 millimeters thick the tumor may have spread to the ciliary body or is size category 2 and is in the choroid only in stage iib the tumor is size category 2 and has spread to the ciliary body or is size category 3 and is in the choroid only stage iii stage iii is divided into stages iiia iiib and iiic in stage iiia the tumor is size category 2 and has spread through the sclera to the outside of the eyeball the part of the tumor outside the eyeball is not more than 5 millimeters thick the tumor may have spread to the ciliary body or is size category 3 and has spread to the ciliary body or is size category 3 and has spread through the sclera to the outside of the eyeball the part of the tumor outside the eyeball is not more than 5 millimeters thick the tumor has not spread to the ciliary body or is size category 4 and is in the choroid only in stage iiib the tumor is size category 3 and has spread through the sclera to the outside of the eyeball the part of the tumor outside the eyeball is not more than 5 millimeters thick the tumor has spread to the ciliary body or is size category 4 and has spread to the ciliary body or is size category 4 and has spread through the sclera to the outside of the eyeball the part of the tumor outside the eyeball is not more than 5 millimeters thick the tumor has not spread to the ciliary body in stage iiic the tumor is size category 4 and has spread through the sclera to the outside of the eyeball the part of the tumor outside the eyeball is not more than 5 millimeters thick the tumor has spread to the ciliary body or may be any size and has spread through the sclera to the outside of the eyeball the part of the tumor outside the eyeball is more than 5 millimeters thick the tumor has not spread to the ciliary body stage iv in stage iv the tumor may be any size and has spread to nearby lymph nodes or to other parts of the body such as the liver lung or bone or to areas under the skin
Keywords: tumor, stage, body, spread, millimeter, thick, cancer, category, size, part


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Question: what are the treatments for intraocular uveal melanoma
Answer: key points there are different types of treatments for patients with intraocular melanoma five types of standard treatment are used surgery watchful waiting radiation therapy photocoagulation thermotherapy new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials treatment for intraocular uveal melanoma may cause side effects patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment follow up tests may be needed there are different types of treatments for patients with intraocular melanoma different types of treatments are available for patients with intraocular melanoma some treatments are standard the currently used treatment and some are being tested in clinical trials a treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer when clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment the new treatment may become the standard treatment patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment five types of standard treatment are used surgery surgery is the most common treatment for intraocular melanoma the following types of surgery may be used resection surgery to remove the tumor and a small amount of healthy tissue around it enucleation surgery to remove the eye and part of the optic nerve this is done if vision cannot be saved and the tumor is large has spread to the optic nerve or causes high pressure inside the eye after surgery the patient is usually fitted for an artificial eye to match the size and color of the other eye exenteration surgery to remove the eye and eyelid and muscles nerves and fat in the eye socket after surgery the patient may be fitted for an artificial eye to match the size and color of the other eye or a facial prosthesis watchful waiting watchful waiting is closely monitoring a patients condition without giving any treatment until signs or symptoms appear or change pictures are taken over time to keep track of changes in the size of the tumor and how fast it is growing watchful waiting is used for patients who do not have signs or symptoms and the tumor is not growing it is also used when the tumor is in the only eye with useful vision radiation therapy radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high energy x rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing there are two types of radiation therapy external radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer certain ways of giving radiation therapy can help keep radiation from damaging nearby healthy tissue these types of external radiation therapy include the following charged particle external beam radiation therapy is a type of external beam radiation therapy a special radiation therapy machine aims tiny invisible particles called protons or helium ions at the cancer cells to kill them with little damage to nearby normal tissues charged particle radiation therapy uses a different type of radiation than the x ray type of radiation therapy gamma knife therapy is a type of stereotactic radiosurgery used for some melanomas this treatment can be given in one treatment it aims tightly focused gamma rays directly at the tumor so there is little damage to healthy tissue gamma knife therapy does not use a knife to remove the tumor and is not an operation internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles seeds wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer certain ways of giving radiation therapy can help keep radiation from damaging healthy tissue this type of internal radiation therapy may include the following localized plaque radiation therapy is a type of internal radiation therapy that may be used for tumors of the eye radioactive seeds are attached to one side of a disk called a plaque and placed directly on the outside wall of the eye near the tumor the side of the plaque with the seeds on it faces the eyeball aiming radiation at the tumor the plaque helps protect other nearby tissue from the radiation the way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated external and internal radiation therapy are used to treat intraocular melanoma photocoagulation photocoagulation is a procedure that uses laser light to destroy blood vessels that bring nutrients to the tumor causing the tumor cells to die photocoagulation may be used to treat small tumors this is also called light coagulation thermotherapy thermotherapy is the use of heat from a laser to destroy cancer cells and shrink the tumor new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website treatment for intraocular uveal melanoma may cause side effects for information about side effects caused by treatment for cancer see our side effects page patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials follow up tests may be needed some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working decisions about whether to continue change or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended the results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back these tests are sometimes called follow up tests or check ups treatment options for intraocular uveal melanoma iris melanoma treatment of iris melanoma may include the following watchful waiting surgery resection or enucleation plaque radiation therapy for tumors that cannot be removed by surgery check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with iris melanoma for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website ciliary body melanoma treatment of tumors in the ciliary body and choroid may include the following plaque radiation therapy charged particle external beam radiation therapy surgery resection or enucleation check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with ciliary body and choroid melanoma small size for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website choroid melanoma treatment of small choroid melanoma may include the following watchful waiting plaque radiation therapy charged particle external beam radiation therapy gamma knife therapy thermotherapy surgery resection or enucleation treatment of medium choroid melanoma may include the following plaque radiation therapy with or without photocoagulation or thermotherapy charged particle external beam radiation therapy surgery resection or enucleation treatment of large choroid melanoma may include the following enucleation when the tumor is too large for treatments that save the eye check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with ciliary body and choroid melanoma small size for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website extraocular extension melanoma and metastatic intraocular uveal melanoma treatment of extraocular extension melanoma that has spread to the bone around the eye may include the following surgery exenteration a clinical trial an effective treatment for metastatic intraocular melanoma has not been found a clinical trial may be a treatment option talk with your doctor about your treatment options check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with extraocular extension melanoma and metastatic intraocular melanoma for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website recurrent intraocular uveal melanoma an effective treatment for recurrent intraocular melanoma has not been found a clinical trial may be a treatment option talk with your doctor about your treatment options check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with recurrent intraocular melanoma for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website
Keywords: trial, clinical, radiation, melanoma, therapy, cancer, type, patient, tumor, surgery


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Question: what research or clinical trials is being done for intraocular uveal melanoma
Answer: new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials
Keywords: trial, clinical, cancer, patient, part, new, treatment, research, standard, taking


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Question: who is at risk for neuroblastoma
Answer: key points screening tests have risks the risks of neuroblastoma screening include the following neuroblastoma may be overdiagnosed false negative test results can occur false positive test results can occur screening tests have risks decisions about screening tests can be difficult not all screening tests are helpful and most have risks before having any screening test you may want to discuss the test with your doctor it is important to know the risks of the test and whether it has been proven to reduce the risk of dying from cancer the risks of neuroblastoma screening include the following neuroblastoma may be overdiagnosed when a screening test result leads to the diagnosis and treatment of a disease that may never have caused symptoms or become life threatening it is called overdiagnosis for example when a urine test result shows a higher than normal amount of homovanillic acid hma or vanillyl mandelic acid vma tests and treatments for neuroblastoma are likely to be done but may not be needed at this time it is not possible to know which neuroblastomas found by a screening test will cause symptoms and which neuroblastomas will not diagnostic tests such as biopsies and cancer treatments such as surgery radiation therapy and chemotherapy can have serious risks including physical and emotional problems false negative test results can occur screening test results may appear to be normal even though neuroblastoma is present a person who receives a false negative test result one that shows there is no cancer when there really is may delay seeking medical care even if there are symptoms false positive test results can occur screening test results may appear to be abnormal even though no cancer is present a false positive test result one that shows there is cancer when there really isn t can cause anxiety and is usually followed by more tests and procedures which also have risks
Keywords: test, screening, result, risk, neuroblastoma, false, cancer, occur, even, negative


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Question: what are the treatments for myelodysplastic syndromes
Answer: key points there are different types of treatment for patients with myelodysplastic syndromes treatment for myelodysplastic syndromes includes supportive care drug therapy and stem cell transplantation three types of standard treatment are used supportive care drug therapy chemotherapy with stem cell transplant new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their treatment follow up tests may be needed there are different types of treatment for patients with myelodysplastic syndromes different types of treatment are available for patients with myelodysplastic syndromes some treatments are standard the currently used treatment and some are being tested in clinical trials a treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer when clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment the new treatment may become the standard treatment patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment treatment for myelodysplastic syndromes includes supportive care drug therapy and stem cell transplantation patients with a myelodysplastic syndrome who have symptoms caused by low blood counts are given supportive care to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life drug therapy may be used to slow progression of the disease certain patients can be cured with aggressive treatment with chemotherapy followed by stem cell transplant using stem cells from a donor three types of standard treatment are used supportive care supportive care is given to lessen the problems caused by the disease or its treatment supportive care may include the following transfusion therapy transfusion therapy blood transfusion is a method of giving red blood cells white blood cells or platelets to replace blood cells destroyed by disease or treatment a red blood cell transfusion is given when the red blood cell count is low and signs or symptoms of anemia such as shortness of breath or feeling very tired occur a platelet transfusion is usually given when the patient is bleeding is having a procedure that may cause bleeding or when the platelet count is very low patients who receive many blood cell transfusions may have tissue and organ damage caused by the buildup of extra iron these patients may be treated with iron chelation therapy to remove the extra iron from the blood erythropoiesis stimulating agents erythropoiesis stimulating agents esas may be given to increase the number of mature red blood cells made by the body and to lessen the effects of anemia sometimes granulocyte colony stimulating factor g csf is given with esas to help the treatment work better antibiotic therapy antibiotics may be given to fight infection drug therapy lenalidomide patients with myelodysplastic syndrome associated with an isolated del 5q chromosome abnormality who need frequent red blood cell transfusions may be treated with lenalidomide lenalidomide is used to lessen the need for red blood cell transfusions immunosuppressive therapy antithymocyte globulin atg works to suppress or weaken the immune system it is used to lessen the need for red blood cell transfusions azacitidine and decitabine azacitidine and decitabine are used to treat myelodysplastic syndromes by killing cells that are dividing rapidly they also help genes that are involved in cell growth to work the way they should treatment with azacitidine and decitabine may slow the progression of myelodysplastic syndromes to acute myeloid leukemia chemotherapy used in acute myeloid leukemia aml patients with a myelodysplastic syndrome and a high number of blasts in their bone marrow have a high risk of acute leukemia they may be treated with the same chemotherapy regimen used in patients with acute myeloid leukemia chemotherapy with stem cell transplant stem cell transplant is a method of giving chemotherapy and replacing blood forming cells destroyed by the treatment stem cells immature blood cells are removed from the blood or bone marrow of a donor and are frozen for storage after the chemotherapy is completed the stored stem cells are thawed and given back to the patient through an infusion these reinfused stem cells grow into and restore the body s blood cells this treatment may not work as well in patients whose myelodysplastic syndrome was caused by past treatment for cancer new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials follow up tests may be needed some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working decisions about whether to continue change or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended the results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back these tests are sometimes called follow up tests or check ups
Keywords: cell, trial, clinical, patient, blood, cancer, myelodysplastic, syndrome, test, therapy


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Question: what is are colon cancer
Answer: key points colon cancer is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the colon health history affects the risk of developing colon cancer signs of colon cancer include blood in the stool or a change in bowel habits tests that examine the colon and rectum are used to detect find and diagnose colon cancer certain factors affect prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options colon cancer is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the colon the colon is part of the bodys digestive system the digestive system removes and processes nutrients vitamins minerals carbohydrates fats proteins and water from foods and helps pass waste material out of the body the digestive system is made up of the esophagus stomach and the small and large intestines the colon large bowel is the first part of the large intestine and is about 5 feet long together the rectum and anal canal make up the last part of the large intestine and are about 6 8 inches long the anal canal ends at the anus the opening of the large intestine to the outside of the body gastrointestinal stromal tumors can occur in the colon see the pdq summary on gastrointestinal stromal tumors treatment for more information see the pdq summary about unusual cancers of childhood treatment for information about colorectal cancer in children
Keywords: colon, cancer, large, intestine, body, digestive, part, system, rectum, see


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Question: who is at risk for colon cancer
Answer: health history affects the risk of developing colon cancer anything that increases your chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer not having risk factors doesnt mean that you will not get cancer talk to your doctor if you think you may be at risk for colorectal cancer risk factors for colorectal cancer include the following having a family history of colon or rectal cancer in a first degree relative parent sibling or child having a personal history of cancer of the colon rectum or ovary having a personal history of high risk adenomas colorectal polyps that are 1 centimeter or larger in size or that have cells that look abnormal under a microscope having inherited changes in certain genes that increase the risk of familial adenomatous polyposis fap or lynch syndrome hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer having a personal history of chronic ulcerative colitis or crohn disease for 8 years or more having three or more alcoholic drinks per day smoking cigarettes being black being obese older age is a main risk factor for most cancers the chance of getting cancer increases as you get older
Keywords: cancer, risk, factor, history, colon, colorectal, get, increase, personal, mean


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Question: what are the symptoms of colon cancer
Answer: signs of colon cancer include blood in the stool or a change in bowel habits these and other signs and symptoms may be caused by colon cancer or by other conditions check with your doctor if you have any of the following a change in bowel habits blood either bright red or very dark in the stool diarrhea constipation or feeling that the bowel does not empty all the way stools that are narrower than usual frequent gas pains bloating fullness or cramps weight loss for no known reason feeling very tired vomiting
Keywords: bowel, cancer, colon, stool, blood, change, feeling, habit, sign, symptom


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Question: how to diagnose colon cancer
Answer: tests that examine the colon and rectum are used to detect find and diagnose colon cancer the following tests and procedures may be used physical exam and history an exam of the body to check general signs of health including checking for signs of disease such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual a history of the patients health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken digital rectal exam an exam of the rectum the doctor or nurse inserts a lubricated gloved finger into the rectum to feel for lumps or anything else that seems unusual fecal occult blood test fobt a test to check stool solid waste for blood that can only be seen with a microscope a small sample of stool is placed on a special card or in a special container and returned to the doctor or laboratory for testing blood in the stool may be a sign of polyps cancer or other conditions there are two types of fobts guaiac fobt the sample of stool on the special card is tested with a chemical if there is blood in the stool the special card changes color immunochemical fobt a liquid is added to the stool sample this mixture is injected into a machine that contains antibodies that can detect blood in the stool if there is blood in the stool a line appears in a window in the machine this test is also called fecal immunochemical test or fit barium enema a series of x rays of the lower gastrointestinal tract a liquid that contains barium a silver white metallic compound is put into the rectum the barium coats the lower gastrointestinal tract and x rays are taken this procedure is also called a lower gi series sigmoidoscopy a procedure to look inside the rectum and sigmoid lower colon for polyps small areas of bulging tissue other abnormal areas or cancer a sigmoidoscope is inserted through the rectum into the sigmoid colon a sigmoidoscope is a thin tube like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing it may also have a tool to remove polyps or tissue samples which are checked under a microscope for signs of cancer colonoscopy a procedure to look inside the rectum and colon for polyps abnormal areas or cancer a colonoscope is inserted through the rectum into the colon a colonoscope is a thin tube like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing it may also have a tool to remove polyps or tissue samples which are checked under a microscope for signs of cancer virtual colonoscopy a procedure that uses a series of x rays called computed tomography to make a series of pictures of the colon a computer puts the pictures together to create detailed images that may show polyps and anything else that seems unusual on the inside surface of the colon this test is also called colonography or ct colonography biopsy the removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer
Keywords: colon, cancer, rectum, stool, test, blood, polyp, sign, procedure, sample


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Question: what is the outlook for colon cancer
Answer: certain factors affect prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options the prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options depend on the following the stage of the cancer whether the cancer is in the inner lining of the colon only or has spread through the colon wall or has spread to lymph nodes or other places in the body whether the cancer has blocked or made a hole in the colon whether there are any cancer cells left after surgery whether the cancer has recurred the patients general health the prognosis also depends on the blood levels of carcinoembryonic antigen cea before treatment begins cea is a substance in the blood that may be increased when cancer is present
Keywords: cancer, colon, whether, prognosis, blood, cea, chance, option, recovery, spread


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Question: what are the stages of colon cancer
Answer: key points after colon cancer has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the colon or to other parts of the body there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body the following stages are used for colon cancer stage 0 carcinoma in situ stage i stage ii stage iii stage iv after colon cancer has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the colon or to other parts of the body the process used to find out if cancer has spread within the colon or to other parts of the body is called staging the information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease it is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment the following tests and procedures may be used in the staging process ct scan cat scan a procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body such as the abdomen or chest taken from different angles the pictures are made by a computer linked to an x ray machine a dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly this procedure is also called computed tomography computerized tomography or computerized axial tomography mri magnetic resonance imaging a procedure that uses a magnet radio waves and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the colon a substance called gadolinium is injected into the patient through a vein the gadolinium collects around the cancer cells so they show up brighter in the picture this procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging nmri pet scan positron emission tomography scan a procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body a small amount of radioactive glucose sugar is injected into a vein the pet scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do chest x ray an x ray of the organs and bones inside the chest an x ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film making a picture of areas inside the body surgery a procedure to remove the tumor and see how far it has spread through the colon lymph node biopsy the removal of all or part of a lymph node a pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells complete blood count cbc a procedure in which a sample of blood is drawn and checked for the following the number of red blood cells white blood cells and platelets the amount of hemoglobin the protein that carries oxygen in the red blood cells the portion of the blood sample made up of red blood cells carcinoembryonic antigen cea assay a test that measures the level of cea in the blood cea is released into the bloodstream from both cancer cells and normal cells when found in higher than normal amounts it can be a sign of colon cancer or other conditions there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer can spread through tissue the lymph system and the blood tissue the cancer spreads from where it began by growing into nearby areas lymph system the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the lymph system the cancer travels through the lymph vessels to other parts of the body blood the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the blood the cancer travels through the blood vessels to other parts of the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body when cancer spreads to another part of the body it is called metastasis cancer cells break away from where they began the primary tumor and travel through the lymph system or blood lymph system the cancer gets into the lymph system travels through the lymph vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body blood the cancer gets into the blood travels through the blood vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body the metastatic tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor for example if colon cancer spreads to the lung the cancer cells in the lung are actually colon cancer cells the disease is metastatic colon cancer not lung cancer the following stages are used for colon cancer stage 0 carcinoma in situ in stage 0 abnormal cells are found in the mucosa innermost layer of the colon wall these abnormal cells may become cancer and spread stage 0 is also called carcinoma in situ stage i in stage i cancer has formed in the mucosa innermost layer of the colon wall and has spread to the submucosa layer of tissue under the mucosa cancer may have spread to the muscle layer of the colon wall stage ii stage ii colon cancer is divided into stage iia stage iib and stage iic stage iia cancer has spread through the muscle layer of the colon wall to the serosa outermost layer of the colon wall stage iib cancer has spread through the serosa outermost layer of the colon wall but has not spread to nearby organs stage iic cancer has spread through the serosa outermost layer of the colon wall to nearby organs stage iii stage iii colon cancer is divided into stage iiia stage iiib and stage iiic in stage iiia cancer has spread through the mucosa innermost layer of the colon wall to the submucosa layer of tissue under the mucosa and may have spread to the muscle layer of the colon wall cancer has spread to at least one but not more than 3 nearby lymph nodes or cancer cells have formed in tissues near the lymph nodes or cancer has spread through the mucosa innermost layer of the colon wall to the submucosa layer of tissue under the mucosa cancer has spread to at least 4 but not more than 6 nearby lymph nodes in stage iiib cancer has spread through the muscle layer of the colon wall to the serosa outermost layer of the colon wall or has spread through the serosa but not to nearby organs cancer has spread to at least one but not more than 3 nearby lymph nodes or cancer cells have formed in tissues near the lymph nodes or cancer has spread to the muscle layer of the colon wall or to the serosa outermost layer of the colon wall cancer has spread to at least 4 but not more than 6 nearby lymph nodes or cancer has spread through the mucosa innermost layer of the colon wall to the submucosa layer of tissue under the mucosa and may have spread to the muscle layer of the colon wall cancer has spread to 7 or more nearby lymph nodes in stage iiic cancer has spread through the serosa outermost layer of the colon wall but has not spread to nearby organs cancer has spread to at least 4 but not more than 6 nearby lymph nodes or cancer has spread through the muscle layer of the colon wall to the serosa outermost layer of the colon wall or has spread through the serosa but has not spread to nearby organs cancer has spread to 7 or more nearby lymph nodes or cancer has spread through the serosa outermost layer of the colon wall and has spread to nearby organs cancer has spread to one or more nearby lymph nodes or cancer cells have formed in tissues near the lymph nodes stage iv stage iv colon cancer is divided into stage iva and stage ivb stage iva cancer may have spread through the colon wall and may have spread to nearby organs or lymph nodes cancer has spread to one organ that is not near the colon such as the liver lung or ovary or to a distant lymph node stage ivb cancer may have spread through the colon wall and may have spread to nearby organs or lymph nodes cancer has spread to more than one organ that is not near the colon or into the lining of the abdominal wall
Keywords: cancer, spread, colon, stage, layer, lymph, wall, cell, body, nearby


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Question: what are the treatments for colon cancer
Answer: key points there are different types of treatment for patients with colon cancer six types of standard treatment are used surgery radiofrequency ablation cryosurgery chemotherapy radiation therapy targeted therapy new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment follow up tests may be needed there are different types of treatment for patients with colon cancer different types of treatment are available for patients with colon cancer some treatments are standard the currently used treatment and some are being tested in clinical trials a treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer when clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment the new treatment may become the standard treatment patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment six types of standard treatment are used surgery surgery removing the cancer in an operation is the most common treatment for all stages of colon cancer a doctor may remove the cancer using one of the following types of surgery local excision if the cancer is found at a very early stage the doctor may remove it without cutting through the abdominal wall instead the doctor may put a tube with a cutting tool through the rectum into the colon and cut the cancer out this is called a local excision if the cancer is found in a polyp a small bulging area of tissue the operation is called a polypectomy resection of the colon with anastomosis if the cancer is larger the doctor will perform a partial colectomy removing the cancer and a small amount of healthy tissue around it the doctor may then perform an anastomosis sewing the healthy parts of the colon together the doctor will also usually remove lymph nodes near the colon and examine them under a microscope to see whether they contain cancer resection of the colon with colostomy if the doctor is not able to sew the 2 ends of the colon back together a stoma an opening is made on the outside of the body for waste to pass through this procedure is called a colostomy a bag is placed around the stoma to collect the waste sometimes the colostomy is needed only until the lower colon has healed and then it can be reversed if the doctor needs to remove the entire lower colon however the colostomy may be permanent even if the doctor removes all the cancer that can be seen at the time of the operation some patients may be given chemotherapy or radiation therapy after surgery to kill any cancer cells that are left treatment given after the surgery to lower the risk that the cancer will come back is called adjuvant therapy radiofrequency ablation radiofrequency ablation is the use of a special probe with tiny electrodes that kill cancer cells sometimes the probe is inserted directly through the skin and only local anesthesia is needed in other cases the probe is inserted through an incision in the abdomen this is done in the hospital with general anesthesia cryosurgery cryosurgery is a treatment that uses an instrument to freeze and destroy abnormal tissue this type of treatment is also called cryotherapy chemotherapy chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing when chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body systemic chemotherapy when chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid an organ or a body cavity such as the abdomen the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas regional chemotherapy chemoembolization of the hepatic artery may be used to treat cancer that has spread to the liver this involves blocking the hepatic artery the main artery that supplies blood to the liver and injecting anticancer drugs between the blockage and the liver the livers arteries then deliver the drugs throughout the liver only a small amount of the drug reaches other parts of the body the blockage may be temporary or permanent depending on what is used to block the artery the liver continues to receive some blood from the hepatic portal vein which carries blood from the stomach and intestine the way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated see drugs approved for colon and rectal cancer for more information radiation therapy radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high energy x rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing there are two types of radiation therapy external radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles seeds wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer the way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated external radiation therapy is used as palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life targeted therapy targeted therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells without harming normal cells types of targeted therapies used in the treatment of colon cancer include the following monoclonal antibodies monoclonal antibodies are made in the laboratory from a single type of immune system cell these antibodies can identify substances on cancer cells or normal substances that may help cancer cells grow the antibodies attach to the substances and kill the cancer cells block their growth or keep them from spreading monoclonal antibodies are given by infusion they may be used alone or to carry drugs toxins or radioactive material directly to cancer cells bevacizumab and ramucirumab are types of monoclonal antibodies that bind to a protein called vascular endothelial growth factor vegf this may prevent the growth of new blood vessels that tumors need to grow cetuximab and panitumumab are types of monoclonal antibodies that bind to a protein called epidermal growth factor receptor egfr on the surface of some types of cancer cells this may stop cancer cells from growing and dividing angiogenesis inhibitors angiogenesis inhibitors stop the growth of new blood vessels that tumors need to grow ziv aflibercept is a vascular endothelial growth factor trap that blocks an enzyme needed for the growth of new blood vessels in tumors regorafenib is used to treat colorectal cancer that has spread to other parts of the body and has not gotten better with other treatment it blocks the action of certain proteins including vascular endothelial growth factor this may help keep cancer cells from growing and may kill them it may also prevent the growth of new blood vessels that tumors need to grow see drugs approved for colon and rectal cancer for more information new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials follow up tests may be needed some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working decisions about whether to continue change or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended the results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back these tests are sometimes called follow up tests or check ups treatment options for colon cancer stage 0 carcinoma in situ treatment of stage 0 carcinoma in situ may include the following types of surgery local excision or simple polypectomy resection and anastomosis this is done when the tumor is too large to remove by local excision check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage 0 colon cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage i colon cancer treatment of stage i colon cancer usually includes the following resection and anastomosis check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage i colon cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage ii colon cancer treatment of stage ii colon cancer may include the following resection and anastomosis check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage ii colon cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage iii colon cancer treatment of stage iii colon cancer may include the following resection and anastomosis which may be followed by chemotherapy clinical trials of new chemotherapy regimens after surgery check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage iii colon cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage iv and recurrent colon cancer treatment of stage iv and recurrent colon cancer may include the following local excision for tumors that have recurred resection with or without anastomosis surgery to remove parts of other organs such as the liver lungs and ovaries where the cancer may have recurred or spread treatment of cancer that has spread to the liver may also include the following chemotherapy given before surgery to shrink the tumor after surgery or both before and after radiofrequency ablation or cryosurgery for patients who cannot have surgery chemoembolization of the hepatic artery radiation therapy or chemotherapy may be offered to some patients as palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life chemotherapy and or targeted therapy with a monoclonal antibody or an angiogenesis inhibitor clinical trials of chemotherapy and or targeted therapy check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage iv colon cancer and recurrent colon cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website
Keywords: cancer, trial, clinical, colon, type, patient, stage, therapy, cell, chemotherapy


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Question: what research or clinical trials is being done for colon cancer
Answer: new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials
Keywords: trial, clinical, cancer, patient, part, new, treatment, research, standard, taking


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Question: what is are oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer
Answer: key points oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer are diseases in which malignant cancer cells form in the mouth and throat the number of new cases of oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer and the number of deaths from oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer varies by race and gender different factors increase or decrease the risk of oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer are diseases in which malignant cancer cells form in the mouth and throat oral cavity cancer forms in any of these tissues of the oral cavity the front two thirds of the tongue the gingiva gums the buccal mucosa the lining of the inside of the cheeks the floor bottom of the mouth under the tongue the hard palate the front of the roof of the mouth the retromolar trigone the small area behind the wisdom teeth oropharyngeal cancer forms in any of these tissues of the oropharynx the middle part of the pharynx throat behind the mouth the back one third of the tongue the soft palate the back of the roof of the mouth the side and back walls of the throat the tonsils most oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancers start in squamous cells the thin flat cells that line the lips oral cavity and oropharynx cancer that forms in squamous cells is called squamous cell carcinoma see the following pdq summaries for more information about the screening diagnosis and treatment of oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer prevention lip and oral cavity cancer treatment oropharyngeal cancer treatment the number of new cases of oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer and the number of deaths from oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer varies by race and gender over the past ten years the number of new cases and deaths from oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer slightly increased in white men and women the number slightly decreased among black men and women oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer is more common in men than in women although oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer may occur in adults of any age it occurs most often in those aged 55 to 64 years france brazil and parts of asia have much higher rates of oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer than most other countries the number of new cases of oropharyngeal cancer caused by certain types of human papillomavirus hpv infection has increased one kind of hpv called hpv 16 is often passed from one person to another during sexual activity
Keywords: cancer, cavity, oral, oropharyngeal, number, cell, mouth, form, case, throat


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Question: who is at risk for oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer
Answer: the number of new cases of oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer and the number of deaths from oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer varies by race and gender over the past ten years the number of new cases and deaths from oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer slightly increased in white men and women the number slightly decreased among black men and women oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer is more common in men than in women although oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer may occur in adults of any age it occurs most often in those aged 55 to 64 years france brazil and parts of asia have much higher rates of oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer than most other countries the number of new cases of oropharyngeal cancer caused by certain types of human papillomavirus hpv infection has increased one kind of hpv called hpv 16 is often passed from one person to another during sexual activity
Keywords: cancer, oropharyngeal, cavity, oral, number, case, hpv, men, new, woman


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Question: who is at risk for oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer
Answer: different factors increase or decrease the risk of oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer anything that increases your chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor anything that decreases your chance of getting a disease is called a protective factor for information about risk factors and protective factors for oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer see the pdq summary on oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer prevention
Keywords: factor, cancer, cavity, oral, oropharyngeal, risk, anything, chance, decrease, protective


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Question: who is at risk for pituitary tumors
Answer: having certain genetic conditions increases the risk of developing a pituitary tumor anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer not having risk factors doesnt mean that you will not get cancer talk with your doctor if you think you may be at risk risk factors for pituitary tumors include having the following hereditary diseases multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 men1 syndrome carney complex isolated familial acromegaly
Keywords: risk, factor, pituitary, tumor, cancer, get, increase, mean, condition, developing


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Question: what are the treatments for pituitary tumors
Answer: key points there are different types of treatment for patients with pituitary tumors four types of standard treatment are used surgery radiation therapy drug therapy chemotherapy new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment follow up tests may be needed there are different types of treatment for patients with pituitary tumors different types of treatments are available for patients with pituitary tumors some treatments are standard the currently used treatment and some are being tested in clinical trials a treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer when clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment the new treatment may become the standard treatment patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment four types of standard treatment are used surgery many pituitary tumors can be removed by surgery using one of the following operations transsphenoidal surgery a type of surgery in which the instruments are inserted into part of the brain by going through an incision cut made under the upper lip or at the bottom of the nose between the nostrils and then through the sphenoid bone a butterfly shaped bone at the base of the skull to reach the pituitary gland the pituitary gland lies just above the sphenoid bone endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery a type of surgery in which an endoscope is inserted through an incision cut made at the back of the inside of the nose and then through the sphenoid bone to reach the pituitary gland an endoscope is a thin tube like instrument with a light a lens for viewing and a tool for removing tumor tissue craniotomy surgery to remove the tumor through an opening made in the skull even if the doctor removes all the cancer that can be seen at the time of the surgery some patients may be given chemotherapy or radiation therapy after surgery to kill any cancer cells that are left treatment given after the surgery to lower the risk that the cancer will come back is called adjuvant therapy radiation therapy radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high energy x rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing there are two types of radiation therapy external radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer certain ways of giving radiation therapy can help keep radiation from damaging nearby healthy tissue this type of radiation therapy may include the following stereotactic radiosurgery a rigid head frame is attached to the skull to keep the head still during the radiation treatment a machine aims a single large dose of radiation directly at the tumor this procedure does not involve surgery it is also called stereotaxic radiosurgery radiosurgery and radiation surgery internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles seeds wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer the way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type of the cancer being treated external radiation therapy is used to treat pituitary tumors drug therapy drugs may be given to stop a functioning pituitary tumor from making too many hormones chemotherapy chemotherapy may be used as palliative treatment for pituitary carcinomas to relieve symptoms and improve the patient s quality of life chemotherapy uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing when chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body systemic chemotherapy when chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid an organ or a body cavity such as the abdomen the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas regional chemotherapy the way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type of the cancer being treated new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials follow up tests may be needed some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working decisions about whether to continue change or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended the results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back these tests are sometimes called follow up tests or check ups treatment options for pituitary tumors non functioning pituitary tumors treatment may include the following surgery transsphenoidal surgery if possible to remove the tumor followed by watchful waiting closely monitoring a patients condition without giving any treatment until signs or symptoms appear or change radiation therapy is given if the tumor comes back radiation therapy alone treatment for luteinizing hormone producing and follicle stimulating hormone producing tumors is usually transsphenoidal surgery to remove the tumor prolactin producing pituitary tumors treatment may include the following drug therapy to stop the tumor from making prolactin and to stop the tumor from growing surgery to remove the tumor transsphenoidal surgery or craniotomy when the tumor does not respond to drug therapy or when the patient cannot take the drug radiation therapy surgery followed by radiation therapy acth producing pituitary tumors treatment may include the following surgery usually transsphenoidal surgery to remove the tumor with or without radiation therapy radiation therapy alone drug therapy to stop the tumor from making acth a clinical trial of stereotactic radiation surgery growth hormoneproducing pituitary tumors treatment may include the following surgery usually transsphenoidal or endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery to remove the tumor with or without radiation therapy drug therapy to stop the tumor from making growth hormone thyroid stimulating hormoneproducing tumors treatment may include the following surgery usually transsphenoidal surgery to remove the tumor with or without radiation therapy drug therapy to stop the tumor from making hormones pituitary carcinomas treatment of pituitary carcinomas is palliative to relieve symptoms and improve the quality of life treatment may include the following surgery transsphenoidal surgery or craniotomy to remove the cancer with or without radiation therapy drug therapy to stop the tumor from making hormones chemotherapy recurrent pituitary tumors treatment may include the following radiation therapy a clinical trial of stereotactic radiation surgery
Keywords: tumor, therapy, radiation, surgery, trial, cancer, clinical, pituitary, patient, type


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Question: what research or clinical trials is being done for pituitary tumors
Answer: new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials
Keywords: trial, clinical, cancer, patient, part, new, treatment, research, standard, taking


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Question: what are the treatments for chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms
Answer: key points there are different types of treatment for patients with chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms eleven types of standard treatment are used watchful waiting phlebotomy platelet apheresis transfusion therapy chemotherapy radiation therapy other drug therapy surgery biologic therapy targeted therapy high dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment follow up tests may be needed there are different types of treatment for patients with chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms different types of treatments are available for patients with chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms some treatments are standard the currently used treatment and some are being tested in clinical trials a treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments when clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment the new treatment may become the standard treatment patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment eleven types of standard treatment are used watchful waiting watchful waiting is closely monitoring a patients condition without giving any treatment until signs or symptoms appear or change phlebotomy phlebotomy is a procedure in which blood is taken from a vein a sample of blood may be taken for tests such as a cbc or blood chemistry sometimes phlebotomy is used as a treatment and blood is taken from the body to remove extra red blood cells phlebotomy is used in this way to treat some chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms platelet apheresis platelet apheresis is a treatment that uses a special machine to remove platelets from the blood blood is taken from the patient and put through a blood cell separator where the platelets are removed the rest of the blood is then returned to the patients bloodstream transfusion therapy transfusion therapy blood transfusion is a method of giving red blood cells white blood cells or platelets to replace blood cells destroyed by disease or cancer treatment chemotherapy chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing when chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body systemic chemotherapy when chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid an organ or a body cavity such as the abdomen the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas regional chemotherapy the way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated see drugs approved for myeloproliferative neoplasms for more information radiation therapy radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high energy x rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing there are two types of radiation therapy external radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles seeds wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer the way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type of cancer being treated external radiation therapy is used to treat chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms and is usually directed at the spleen other drug therapy prednisone and danazol are drugs that may be used to treat anemia in patients with primary myelofibrosis anagrelide therapy is used to reduce the risk of blood clots in patients who have too many platelets in their blood low dose aspirin may also be used to reduce the risk of blood clots thalidomide lenalidomide and pomalidomide are drugs that prevent blood vessels from growing into areas of tumor cells see drugs approved for myeloproliferative neoplasms for more information surgery splenectomy surgery to remove the spleen may be done if the spleen is enlarged biologic therapy biologic therapy is a treatment that uses the patient s immune system to fight cancer or other diseases substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost direct or restore the body s natural defenses against disease this type of treatment is also called biotherapy or immunotherapy interferon alfa and pegylated interferon alpha are biologic agents commonly used to treat some chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms erythropoietic growth factors are also biologic agents they are used to stimulate the bone marrow to make red blood cells targeted therapy targeted therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells without harming normal cells tyrosine kinase inhibitors are targeted therapy drugs that block signals needed for tumors to grow ruxolitinib is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor used to treat certain types of myelofibrosis see drugs approved for myeloproliferative neoplasms for more information other types of targeted therapies are being studied in clinical trials high dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant high dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant is a method of giving high doses of chemotherapy and replacing blood forming cells destroyed by the cancer treatment stem cells immature blood cells are removed from the blood or bone marrow of the patient or a donor and are frozen and stored after the chemotherapy is completed the stored stem cells are thawed and given back to the patient through an infusion these reinfused stem cells grow into and restore the body s blood cells new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials follow up tests may be needed some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working decisions about whether to continue change or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended the results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back these tests are sometimes called follow up tests or check ups treatment options for chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms chronic myelogenous leukemia see the pdq summary about chronic myelogenous leukemia treatment for information polycythemia vera the purpose of treatment for polycythemia vera is to reduce the number of extra blood cells treatment of polycythemia vera may include the following phlebotomy chemotherapy with or without phlebotomy biologic therapy using interferon alfa or pegylated interferon alpha low dose aspirin check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with polycythemia vera for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website primary myelofibrosis treatment of primary myelofibrosis in patients without signs or symptoms is usually watchful waiting patients with primary myelofibrosis may have signs or symptoms of anemia anemia is usually treated with transfusion of red blood cells to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life in addition anemia may be treated with erythropoietic growth factors prednisone danazol thalidomide lenalidomide or pomalidomide with or without prednisone treatment of primary myelofibrosis in patients with other signs or symptoms may include the following targeted therapy with ruxolitinib chemotherapy donor stem cell transplant thalidomide lenalidomide or pomalidomide splenectomy radiation therapy to the spleen lymph nodes or other areas outside the bone marrow where blood cells are forming biologic therapy using interferon alfa or erythropoietic growth factors a clinical trial of other targeted therapy drugs check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with primary myelofibrosis for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website essential thrombocythemia treatment of essential thrombocythemia in patients younger than 60 years who have no signs or symptoms and an acceptable platelet count is usually watchful waiting treatment of other patients may include the following chemotherapy anagrelide therapy biologic therapy using interferon alfa or pegylated interferon alpha platelet apheresis a clinical trial of a new treatment check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with essential thrombocythemia for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website chronic neutrophilic leukemia treatment of chronic neutrophilic leukemia may include the following donor bone marrow transplant chemotherapy biologic therapy using interferon alfa a clinical trial of a new treatment check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with chronic neutrophilic leukemia for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website chronic eosinophilic leukemia treatment of chronic eosinophilic leukemia may include the following bone marrow transplant biologic therapy using interferon alfa a clinical trial of a new treatment check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with chronic eosinophilic leukemia for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website
Keywords: trial, clinical, cancer, therapy, patient, cell, blood, type, drug, chemotherapy


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Question: what is are skin cancer
Answer: key points skin cancer is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the skin there are several types of skin cancer skin cancer is the most common cancer in the united states skin cancer is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the skin the skin is the bodys largest organ it protects against heat sunlight injury and infection skin also helps control body temperature and stores water fat and vitamin d the skin has several layers but the two main layers are the epidermis upper or outer layer and the dermis lower or inner layer the epidermis is made up of 3 kinds of cells squamous cells are the thin flat cells that make up most of the epidermis basal cells are the round cells under the squamous cells melanocytes are found throughout the lower part of the epidermis they make melanin the pigment that gives skin its natural color when skin is exposed to the sun melanocytes make more pigment causing the skin to tan or darken the dermis contains blood and lymph vessels hair follicles and glands see the following pdq summaries for more information about skin cancer skin cancer screening skin cancer treatment melanoma treatment genetics of skin cancer there are several types of skin cancer the most common types of skin cancer are squamous cell carcinoma which forms in the squamous cells and basal cell carcinoma which forms in the basal cells squamous cell carcinoma and basal cell carcinoma are also called nonmelanoma skin cancers melanoma which forms in the melanocytes is a less common type of skin cancer that grows and spreads quickly skin cancer can occur anywhere on the body but it is most common in areas exposed to sunlight such as the face neck hands and arms skin cancer is the most common cancer in the united states basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma are the most common types of skin cancer in the united states the number of new cases of nonmelanoma skin cancer appears to be increasing every year these nonmelanoma skin cancers can usually be cured the number of new cases of melanoma has been increasing for at least 30 years melanoma is more likely to spread to nearby tissues and other parts of the body and can be harder to cure finding and treating melanoma skin cancer early may help prevent death from melanoma
Keywords: skin, cancer, cell, carcinoma, common, melanoma, squamous, basal, form, type


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Question: how to prevent skin cancer
Answer: key points avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent cancer being exposed to ultraviolet radiation is a risk factor for skin cancer it is not known if the following lower the risk of nonmelanoma skin cancer sunscreen use and avoiding sun exposure chemopreventive agents it is not known if the following lower the risk of melanoma sunscreen counseling and protecting the skin from the sun cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer new ways to prevent skin cancer are being studied in clinical trials avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent cancer avoiding cancer risk factors may help prevent certain cancers risk factors include smoking being overweight and not getting enough exercise increasing protective factors such as quitting smoking and exercising may also help prevent some cancers talk to your doctor or other health care professional about how you might lower your risk of cancer being exposed to ultraviolet radiation is a risk factor for skin cancer some studies suggest that being exposed to ultraviolet uv radiation and the sensitivity of a persons skin to uv radiation are risk factors for skin cancer uv radiation is the name for the invisible rays that are part of the energy that comes from the sun sunlamps and tanning beds also give off uv radiation risk factors for nonmelanoma and melanoma cancers are not the same risk factors for nonmelanoma skin cancer being exposed to natural sunlight or artificial sunlight such as from tanning beds over long periods of time having a fair complexion which includes the following fair skin that freckles and burns easily does not tan or tans poorly blue or green or other light colored eyes red or blond hair having actinic keratosis past treatment with radiation having a weakened immune system being exposed to arsenic risk factors for melanoma skin cancer having a fair complexion which includes the following fair skin that freckles and burns easily does not tan or tans poorly blue or green or other light colored eyes red or blond hair being exposed to natural sunlight or artificial sunlight such as from tanning beds over long periods of time having a history of many blistering sunburns especially as a child or teenager having several large or many small moles having a family history of unusual moles atypical nevus syndrome having a family or personal history of melanoma being white it is not known if the following lower the risk of nonmelanoma skin cancer sunscreen use and avoiding sun exposure it is not known if nonmelanoma skin cancer risk is decreased by staying out of the sun using sunscreens or wearing protective clothing when outdoors this is because not enough studies have been done to prove this sunscreen may help decrease the amount of uv radiation to the skin one study found that wearing sunscreen can help prevent actinic keratoses scaly patches of skin that sometimes become squamous cell carcinoma the harms of using sunscreen are likely to be small and include allergic reactions to skin creams and lower levels of vitamin d made in the skin because of less sun exposure it is also possible that when a person uses sunscreen to avoid sunburn they may spend too much time in the sun and be exposed to harmful uv radiation although protecting the skin and eyes from the sun has not been proven to lower the chance of getting skin cancer skin experts suggest the following use sunscreen that protects against uv radiation do not stay out in the sun for long periods of time especially when the sun is at its strongest wear long sleeve shirts long pants sun hats and sunglasses when outdoors chemopreventive agents chemoprevention is the use of drugs vitamins or other agents to try to reduce the risk of cancer the following chemopreventive agents have been studied to find whether they lower the risk of nonmelanoma skin cancer beta carotene studies of beta carotene taken as a supplement in pills have not shown that it prevents nonmelanoma skin cancer from forming or coming back isotretinoin high doses of isotretinoin have been shown to prevent new skin cancers in patients with xeroderma pigmentosum however isotretinoin has not been shown to prevent nonmelanoma skin cancers from coming back in patients previously treated for nonmelanoma skin cancers treatment with isotretinoin can cause serious side effects selenium studies have shown that selenium taken in brewer s yeast tablets does not lower the risk of basal cell carcinoma and may increase the risk of squamous cell carcinoma celecoxib a study of celecoxib in patients with actinic keratosis and a history of nonmelanoma skin cancer found those who took celecoxib had slightly lower rates of recurrent nonmelanoma skin cancers celecoxib may have serious side effects on the heart and blood vessels alpha difluoromethylornithine dfmo a study of alpha difluoromethylornithine dfmo in patients with a history of nonmelanoma skin cancer showed that those who took dfmo had lower rates of nonmelanoma skin cancers coming back than those who took a placebo dfmo may cause hearing loss which is usually temporary nicotinamide vitamin b3 studies have shown that nicotinamide vitamin b3 helps prevent new actinic keratoses lesions from forming in people who had four or fewer actinic lesions before taking nicotinamide more studies are needed to find out if nicotinamide prevents nonmelanoma skin cancer from forming or coming back it is not known if the following lower the risk of melanoma sunscreen it has not been proven that using sunscreen to prevent sunburn can protect against melanoma caused by uv radiation other risk factors such as having skin that burns easily having a large number of benign moles or having atypical nevi may also play a role in whether melanoma forms counseling and protecting the skin from the sun it is not known if people who receive counseling or information about avoiding sun exposure make changes in their behavior to protect their skin from the sun cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to lower the risk of developing certain types of cancer some cancer prevention trials are conducted with healthy people who have not had cancer but who have an increased risk for cancer other prevention trials are conducted with people who have had cancer and are trying to prevent another cancer of the same type or to lower their chance of developing a new type of cancer other trials are done with healthy volunteers who are not known to have any risk factors for cancer the purpose of some cancer prevention clinical trials is to find out whether actions people take can prevent cancer these may include eating fruits and vegetables exercising quitting smoking or taking certain medicines vitamins minerals or food supplements new ways to prevent skin cancer are being studied in clinical trials clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country information about clinical trials can be found in the clinical trials section of the nci web site check nci s list of cancer clinical trials for nonmelanoma skin cancer prevention trials and melanoma prevention trials that are now accepting patients
Keywords: cancer, skin, risk, prevent, factor, nonmelanoma, trial, sun, lower, study


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Question: who is at risk for skin cancer
Answer: key points avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent cancer being exposed to ultraviolet radiation is a risk factor for skin cancer it is not known if the following lower the risk of nonmelanoma skin cancer sunscreen use and avoiding sun exposure chemopreventive agents it is not known if the following lower the risk of melanoma sunscreen counseling and protecting the skin from the sun cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer new ways to prevent skin cancer are being studied in clinical trials avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent cancer avoiding cancer risk factors may help prevent certain cancers risk factors include smoking being overweight and not getting enough exercise increasing protective factors such as quitting smoking and exercising may also help prevent some cancers talk to your doctor or other health care professional about how you might lower your risk of cancer being exposed to ultraviolet radiation is a risk factor for skin cancer some studies suggest that being exposed to ultraviolet uv radiation and the sensitivity of a persons skin to uv radiation are risk factors for skin cancer uv radiation is the name for the invisible rays that are part of the energy that comes from the sun sunlamps and tanning beds also give off uv radiation risk factors for nonmelanoma and melanoma cancers are not the same risk factors for nonmelanoma skin cancer being exposed to natural sunlight or artificial sunlight such as from tanning beds over long periods of time having a fair complexion which includes the following fair skin that freckles and burns easily does not tan or tans poorly blue or green or other light colored eyes red or blond hair having actinic keratosis past treatment with radiation having a weakened immune system being exposed to arsenic risk factors for melanoma skin cancer having a fair complexion which includes the following fair skin that freckles and burns easily does not tan or tans poorly blue or green or other light colored eyes red or blond hair being exposed to natural sunlight or artificial sunlight such as from tanning beds over long periods of time having a history of many blistering sunburns especially as a child or teenager having several large or many small moles having a family history of unusual moles atypical nevus syndrome having a family or personal history of melanoma being white it is not known if the following lower the risk of nonmelanoma skin cancer sunscreen use and avoiding sun exposure it is not known if nonmelanoma skin cancer risk is decreased by staying out of the sun using sunscreens or wearing protective clothing when outdoors this is because not enough studies have been done to prove this sunscreen may help decrease the amount of uv radiation to the skin one study found that wearing sunscreen can help prevent actinic keratoses scaly patches of skin that sometimes become squamous cell carcinoma the harms of using sunscreen are likely to be small and include allergic reactions to skin creams and lower levels of vitamin d made in the skin because of less sun exposure it is also possible that when a person uses sunscreen to avoid sunburn they may spend too much time in the sun and be exposed to harmful uv radiation although protecting the skin and eyes from the sun has not been proven to lower the chance of getting skin cancer skin experts suggest the following use sunscreen that protects against uv radiation do not stay out in the sun for long periods of time especially when the sun is at its strongest wear long sleeve shirts long pants sun hats and sunglasses when outdoors chemopreventive agents chemoprevention is the use of drugs vitamins or other agents to try to reduce the risk of cancer the following chemopreventive agents have been studied to find whether they lower the risk of nonmelanoma skin cancer beta carotene studies of beta carotene taken as a supplement in pills have not shown that it prevents nonmelanoma skin cancer from forming or coming back isotretinoin high doses of isotretinoin have been shown to prevent new skin cancers in patients with xeroderma pigmentosum however isotretinoin has not been shown to prevent nonmelanoma skin cancers from coming back in patients previously treated for nonmelanoma skin cancers treatment with isotretinoin can cause serious side effects selenium studies have shown that selenium taken in brewer s yeast tablets does not lower the risk of basal cell carcinoma and may increase the risk of squamous cell carcinoma celecoxib a study of celecoxib in patients with actinic keratosis and a history of nonmelanoma skin cancer found those who took celecoxib had slightly lower rates of recurrent nonmelanoma skin cancers celecoxib may have serious side effects on the heart and blood vessels alpha difluoromethylornithine dfmo a study of alpha difluoromethylornithine dfmo in patients with a history of nonmelanoma skin cancer showed that those who took dfmo had lower rates of nonmelanoma skin cancers coming back than those who took a placebo dfmo may cause hearing loss which is usually temporary nicotinamide vitamin b3 studies have shown that nicotinamide vitamin b3 helps prevent new actinic keratoses lesions from forming in people who had four or fewer actinic lesions before taking nicotinamide more studies are needed to find out if nicotinamide prevents nonmelanoma skin cancer from forming or coming back it is not known if the following lower the risk of melanoma sunscreen it has not been proven that using sunscreen to prevent sunburn can protect against melanoma caused by uv radiation other risk factors such as having skin that burns easily having a large number of benign moles or having atypical nevi may also play a role in whether melanoma forms counseling and protecting the skin from the sun it is not known if people who receive counseling or information about avoiding sun exposure make changes in their behavior to protect their skin from the sun
Keywords: skin, cancer, risk, factor, nonmelanoma, sun, lower, prevent, radiation, sunscreen


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Question: what research or clinical trials is being done for skin cancer
Answer: cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to lower the risk of developing certain types of cancer some cancer prevention trials are conducted with healthy people who have not had cancer but who have an increased risk for cancer other prevention trials are conducted with people who have had cancer and are trying to prevent another cancer of the same type or to lower their chance of developing a new type of cancer other trials are done with healthy volunteers who are not known to have any risk factors for cancer the purpose of some cancer prevention clinical trials is to find out whether actions people take can prevent cancer these may include eating fruits and vegetables exercising quitting smoking or taking certain medicines vitamins minerals or food supplements new ways to prevent skin cancer are being studied in clinical trials clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country information about clinical trials can be found in the clinical trials section of the nci web site check nci s list of cancer clinical trials for nonmelanoma skin cancer prevention trials and melanoma prevention trials that are now accepting patients
Keywords: cancer, trial, clinical, prevention, prevent, people, risk, skin, type, way


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Question: what is are colorectal cancer
Answer: key points colorectal cancer is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the colon or the rectum colorectal cancer is the second leading cause of death from cancer in the united states colorectal cancer is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the colon or the rectum the colon is part of the body s digestive system the digestive system removes and processes nutrients vitamins minerals carbohydrates fats proteins and water from foods and helps pass waste material out of the body the digestive system is made up of the mouth throat esophagus stomach and the small and large intestines the colon large bowel is the first part of the large intestine and is about 5 feet long together the rectum and anal canal make up the last part of the large intestine and are 6 to 8 inches long the anal canal ends at the anus the opening of the large intestine to the outside of the body cancer that begins in the colon is called colon cancer and cancer that begins in the rectum is called rectal cancer cancer that affects either of these organs may also be called colorectal cancer see the following pdq summaries for more information about colorectal cancer colorectal cancer screening colon cancer treatment rectal cancer treatment genetics of colorectal cancer colorectal cancer is the second leading cause of death from cancer in the united states the number of new colorectal cancer cases and the number of deaths from colorectal cancer are both decreasing a little bit each year however in adults younger than 50 years the number of new colorectal cancer cases has slowly increased since 1998 the number of new colorectal cancers and deaths from colorectal cancer are higher in african americans than in other races finding and treating colorectal cancer early may prevent death from colorectal cancer screening tests may be used to help find colorectal cancer
Keywords: cancer, colorectal, colon, death, large, intestine, number, rectum, called, part


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Question: how to prevent colorectal cancer
Answer: key points avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent cancer the following risk factors increase the risk of colorectal cancer age family history of colorectal cancer personal history inherited risk alcohol cigarette smoking obesity the following protective factors decrease the risk of colorectal cancer physical activity aspirin combination hormone replacement therapy polyp removal it is not clear if the following affect the risk of colorectal cancer nonsteroidal anti inflammatory drugs nsaids other than aspirin calcium diet the following factors do not affect the risk of colorectal cancer hormone replacement therapy with estrogen only statins cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer new ways to prevent colorectal cancer are being studied in clinical trials avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent cancer avoiding cancer risk factors may help prevent certain cancers risk factors include smoking being overweight and not getting enough exercise increasing protective factors such as quitting smoking and exercising may also help prevent some cancers talk to your doctor or other health care professional about how you might lower your risk of cancer the following risk factors increase the risk of colorectal cancer age the risk of colorectal cancer increases after age 50 most cases of colorectal cancer are diagnosed after age 50 family history of colorectal cancer having a parent brother sister or child with colorectal cancer doubles a person s risk of colorectal cancer personal history having a personal history of the following conditions increases the risk of colorectal cancer previous colorectal cancer high risk adenomas colorectal polyps that are 1 centimeter or larger in size or that have cells that look abnormal under a microscope ovarian cancer inflammatory bowel disease such as ulcerative colitis or crohn disease inherited risk the risk of colorectal cancer is increased when certain gene changes linked to familial adenomatous polyposis fap or hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer hnpcc or lynch syndrome are inherited alcohol drinking 3 or more alcoholic beverages per day increases the risk of colorectal cancer drinking alcohol is also linked to the risk of forming large colorectal adenomas benign tumors cigarette smoking cigarette smoking is linked to an increased risk of colorectal cancer and death from colorectal cancer smoking cigarettes is also linked to an increased risk of forming colorectal adenomas cigarette smokers who have had surgery to remove colorectal adenomas are at an increased risk for the adenomas to recur come back obesity obesity is linked to an increased risk of colorectal cancer and death from colorectal cancer the following protective factors decrease the risk of colorectal cancer physical activity a lifestyle that includes regular physical activity is linked to a decreased risk of colorectal cancer aspirin studies have shown that taking aspirin lowers the risk of colorectal cancer and the risk of death from colorectal cancer the decrease in risk begins 10 to 20 years after patients start taking aspirin the possible harms of aspirin use 100 mg or less daily or every other day include an increased risk of stroke and bleeding in the stomach and intestines these risks may be greater among the elderly men and those with conditions linked to a higher than normal risk of bleeding combination hormone replacement therapy studies have shown that combination hormone replacement therapy hrt that includes both estrogen and progestin lowers the risk of invasive colorectal cancer in postmenopausal women however in women who take combination hrt and do develop colorectal cancer the cancer is more likely to be advanced when it is diagnosed and the risk of dying from colorectal cancer is not decreased the possible harms of combination hrt include an increased risk of having breast cancer heart disease blood clots polyp removal most colorectal polyps are adenomas which may develop into cancer removing colorectal polyps that are larger than 1 centimeter pea sized may lower the risk of colorectal cancer it is not known if removing smaller polyps lowers the risk of colorectal cancer the possible harms of polyp removal during colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy include a tear in the wall of the colon and bleeding it is not clear if the following affect the risk of colorectal cancer nonsteroidal anti inflammatory drugs nsaids other than aspirin it is not known if the use of nonsteroidal anti inflammatory drugs or nsaids such as sulindac celecoxib naproxen and ibuprofen lowers the risk of colorectal cancer studies have shown that taking the nonsteroidal anti inflammatory drug celecoxib reduces the risk of colorectal adenomas benign tumors coming back after they have been removed it is not clear if this results in a lower risk of colorectal cancer taking sulindac or celecoxib has been shown to reduce the number and size of polyps that form in the colon and rectum of people with familial adenomatous polyposis fap it is not clear if this results in a lower risk of colorectal cancer the possible harms of nsaids include kidney problems bleeding in the stomach intestines or brain heart problems such as heart attack and congestive heart failure calcium it is not known if taking calcium supplements lowers the risk of colorectal cancer diet it is not known if a diet low in fat and meat and high in fiber fruits and vegetables lowers the risk of colorectal cancer some studies have shown that a diet high in fat proteins calories and meat increases the risk of colorectal cancer but other studies have not the following factors do not affect the risk of colorectal cancer hormone replacement therapy with estrogen only hormone replacement therapy with estrogen only does not lower the risk of having invasive colorectal cancer or the risk of dying from colorectal cancer statins studies have shown that taking statins drugs that lower cholesterol does not increase or decrease the risk of colorectal cancer cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to lower the risk of developing certain types of cancer some cancer prevention trials are conducted with healthy people who have not had cancer but who have an increased risk for cancer other prevention trials are conducted with people who have had cancer and are trying to prevent another cancer of the same type or to lower their chance of developing a new type of cancer other trials are done with healthy volunteers who are not known to have any risk factors for cancer the purpose of some cancer prevention clinical trials is to find out whether actions people take can prevent cancer these may include exercising more or quitting smoking or taking certain medicines vitamins minerals or food supplements new ways to prevent colorectal cancer are being studied in clinical trials clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country information about clinical trials can be found in the clinical trials section of the nci website check nci s list of cancer clinical trials for colon cancer prevention trials or rectal cancer prevention trials that are now accepting patients
Keywords: cancer, risk, colorectal, trial, factor, lower, prevent, clinical, following, study


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Question: who is at risk for colorectal cancer
Answer: key points avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent cancer the following risk factors increase the risk of colorectal cancer age family history of colorectal cancer personal history inherited risk alcohol cigarette smoking obesity the following protective factors decrease the risk of colorectal cancer physical activity aspirin combination hormone replacement therapy polyp removal it is not clear if the following affect the risk of colorectal cancer nonsteroidal anti inflammatory drugs nsaids other than aspirin calcium diet the following factors do not affect the risk of colorectal cancer hormone replacement therapy with estrogen only statins cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer new ways to prevent colorectal cancer are being studied in clinical trials avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent cancer avoiding cancer risk factors may help prevent certain cancers risk factors include smoking being overweight and not getting enough exercise increasing protective factors such as quitting smoking and exercising may also help prevent some cancers talk to your doctor or other health care professional about how you might lower your risk of cancer the following risk factors increase the risk of colorectal cancer age the risk of colorectal cancer increases after age 50 most cases of colorectal cancer are diagnosed after age 50 family history of colorectal cancer having a parent brother sister or child with colorectal cancer doubles a person s risk of colorectal cancer personal history having a personal history of the following conditions increases the risk of colorectal cancer previous colorectal cancer high risk adenomas colorectal polyps that are 1 centimeter or larger in size or that have cells that look abnormal under a microscope ovarian cancer inflammatory bowel disease such as ulcerative colitis or crohn disease inherited risk the risk of colorectal cancer is increased when certain gene changes linked to familial adenomatous polyposis fap or hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer hnpcc or lynch syndrome are inherited alcohol drinking 3 or more alcoholic beverages per day increases the risk of colorectal cancer drinking alcohol is also linked to the risk of forming large colorectal adenomas benign tumors cigarette smoking cigarette smoking is linked to an increased risk of colorectal cancer and death from colorectal cancer smoking cigarettes is also linked to an increased risk of forming colorectal adenomas cigarette smokers who have had surgery to remove colorectal adenomas are at an increased risk for the adenomas to recur come back obesity obesity is linked to an increased risk of colorectal cancer and death from colorectal cancer it is not clear if the following affect the risk of colorectal cancer nonsteroidal anti inflammatory drugs nsaids other than aspirin it is not known if the use of nonsteroidal anti inflammatory drugs or nsaids such as sulindac celecoxib naproxen and ibuprofen lowers the risk of colorectal cancer studies have shown that taking the nonsteroidal anti inflammatory drug celecoxib reduces the risk of colorectal adenomas benign tumors coming back after they have been removed it is not clear if this results in a lower risk of colorectal cancer taking sulindac or celecoxib has been shown to reduce the number and size of polyps that form in the colon and rectum of people with familial adenomatous polyposis fap it is not clear if this results in a lower risk of colorectal cancer the possible harms of nsaids include kidney problems bleeding in the stomach intestines or brain heart problems such as heart attack and congestive heart failure calcium it is not known if taking calcium supplements lowers the risk of colorectal cancer diet it is not known if a diet low in fat and meat and high in fiber fruits and vegetables lowers the risk of colorectal cancer some studies have shown that a diet high in fat proteins calories and meat increases the risk of colorectal cancer but other studies have not the following factors do not affect the risk of colorectal cancer hormone replacement therapy with estrogen only hormone replacement therapy with estrogen only does not lower the risk of having invasive colorectal cancer or the risk of dying from colorectal cancer statins studies have shown that taking statins drugs that lower cholesterol does not increase or decrease the risk of colorectal cancer
Keywords: cancer, risk, colorectal, factor, following, lower, increase, adenoma, prevent, smoking


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Question: what research or clinical trials is being done for colorectal cancer
Answer: cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to lower the risk of developing certain types of cancer some cancer prevention trials are conducted with healthy people who have not had cancer but who have an increased risk for cancer other prevention trials are conducted with people who have had cancer and are trying to prevent another cancer of the same type or to lower their chance of developing a new type of cancer other trials are done with healthy volunteers who are not known to have any risk factors for cancer the purpose of some cancer prevention clinical trials is to find out whether actions people take can prevent cancer these may include exercising more or quitting smoking or taking certain medicines vitamins minerals or food supplements new ways to prevent colorectal cancer are being studied in clinical trials clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country information about clinical trials can be found in the clinical trials section of the nci website check nci s list of cancer clinical trials for colon cancer prevention trials or rectal cancer prevention trials that are now accepting patients
Keywords: cancer, trial, clinical, prevention, prevent, people, risk, type, way, lower


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Question: how to prevent oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer
Answer: key points avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent cancer the following are risk factors for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer tobacco use alcohol use tobacco and alcohol use betel quid or gutka chewing personal history of head and neck cancer the following is a risk factor for oropharyngeal cancer hpv infection the following is a protective factor for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer quitting smoking it is not clear whether avoiding certain risk factors will decrease the risk of oral cavity cancer or oropharyngeal cancer cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer new ways to prevent oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer are being studied in clinical trials avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent cancer avoiding cancer risk factors may help prevent certain cancers risk factors include smoking being overweight and not getting enough exercise increasing protective factors such as quitting smoking and exercising may also help prevent some cancers talk to your doctor or other health care professional about how you might lower your risk of cancer oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer are two different diseases but they have some risk factors in common the following are risk factors for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer tobacco use using tobacco is the most common cause of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer the risk of these cancers is about 5 to 10 times higher for current smokers than for people who have never smoked the use of all types of tobacco including cigarettes pipes cigars and smokeless tobacco snuff and chewing tobacco can cause cancer of the oral cavity and oropharynx for cigarette smokers the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer increases with the number of cigarettes smoked per day alcohol use using alcohol is also an important risk factor for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer increases with the number of alcoholic drinks consumed per day the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is about twice as high in people who have 3 to 4 alcoholic drinks per day and 5 times higher in people who have 5 or more alcoholic drinks per day compared with those who don t drink alcohol tobacco and alcohol use the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is 2 to 3 times higher in people who use both tobacco and alcohol than it is in people who use only tobacco or only alcohol the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is about 35 times higher in people who smoke 2 or more packs of cigarettes per day and have more than 4 alcoholic drinks per day than it is in people who have never smoked cigarettes or consumed alcohol betel quid or gutka chewing chewing betel quid or gutka betel quid mixed with tobacco has been shown to increase the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer betel quid contains areca nut which is a cancer causing substance the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer increases with how long and how often betel quid or gutka are chewed the risk for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is higher when chewing gutka than when chewing betel quid alone betel quid and gutka chewing is common in many countries in south asia and southeast asia including china and india personal history of head and neck cancer a personal history of head and neck cancer increases the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer the following is a risk factor for oropharyngeal cancer hpv infection being infected with certain types of hpv especially hpv type 16 increases the risk of oropharyngeal cancer hpv infection is spread mainly through sexual contact the risk of oropharyngeal cancer is about 15 times higher in people who have oral hpv 16 infection compared with people who do not have oral hpv 16 infection the following is a protective factor for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer quitting smoking studies have shown that when people stop smoking cigarettes their risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer decreases by one half 50 within 5 years within 20 years of quitting their risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is the same as for a person who never smoked cigarettes it is not clear whether avoiding certain risk factors will decrease the risk of oral cavity cancer or oropharyngeal cancer it has not been proven that stopping alcohol use will decrease the risk of oral cavity cancer or oropharyngeal cancer getting an hpv vaccination greatly lessens the risk of oral hpv infection it is not yet known whether getting an hpv vaccination at any age will decrease the risk of oropharyngeal cancer from hpv infection cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to lower the risk of certain types of cancer some cancer prevention trials are done with healthy people who have not had cancer but who have an increased risk for cancer other prevention trials are done with people who have had cancer and are trying to prevent another cancer of the same type or to lower their chance of developing a new type of cancer other trials are done with healthy volunteers who are not known to have any risk factors for cancer the purpose of some cancer prevention clinical trials is to find out whether actions people take can prevent cancer these may include eating fruits and vegetables exercising quitting smoking or taking certain medicines vitamins minerals or food supplements new ways to prevent oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer are being studied in clinical trials clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country information about clinical trials can be found in the clinical trials section of the nci website check nci s list of cancer clinical trials for oral cavity cancer prevention trials and oropharyngeal cancer prevention trials that are now accepting patients
Keywords: cancer, risk, oropharyngeal, oral, cavity, factor, trial, people, prevent, tobacco


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Question: who is at risk for oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer
Answer: key points avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent cancer the following are risk factors for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer tobacco use alcohol use tobacco and alcohol use betel quid or gutka chewing personal history of head and neck cancer the following is a risk factor for oropharyngeal cancer hpv infection the following is a protective factor for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer quitting smoking it is not clear whether avoiding certain risk factors will decrease the risk of oral cavity cancer or oropharyngeal cancer cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer new ways to prevent oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer are being studied in clinical trials avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent cancer avoiding cancer risk factors may help prevent certain cancers risk factors include smoking being overweight and not getting enough exercise increasing protective factors such as quitting smoking and exercising may also help prevent some cancers talk to your doctor or other health care professional about how you might lower your risk of cancer oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer are two different diseases but they have some risk factors in common the following are risk factors for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer tobacco use using tobacco is the most common cause of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer the risk of these cancers is about 5 to 10 times higher for current smokers than for people who have never smoked the use of all types of tobacco including cigarettes pipes cigars and smokeless tobacco snuff and chewing tobacco can cause cancer of the oral cavity and oropharynx for cigarette smokers the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer increases with the number of cigarettes smoked per day alcohol use using alcohol is also an important risk factor for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer increases with the number of alcoholic drinks consumed per day the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is about twice as high in people who have 3 to 4 alcoholic drinks per day and 5 times higher in people who have 5 or more alcoholic drinks per day compared with those who don t drink alcohol tobacco and alcohol use the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is 2 to 3 times higher in people who use both tobacco and alcohol than it is in people who use only tobacco or only alcohol the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is about 35 times higher in people who smoke 2 or more packs of cigarettes per day and have more than 4 alcoholic drinks per day than it is in people who have never smoked cigarettes or consumed alcohol betel quid or gutka chewing chewing betel quid or gutka betel quid mixed with tobacco has been shown to increase the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer betel quid contains areca nut which is a cancer causing substance the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer increases with how long and how often betel quid or gutka are chewed the risk for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is higher when chewing gutka than when chewing betel quid alone betel quid and gutka chewing is common in many countries in south asia and southeast asia including china and india personal history of head and neck cancer a personal history of head and neck cancer increases the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer the following is a risk factor for oropharyngeal cancer hpv infection being infected with certain types of hpv especially hpv type 16 increases the risk of oropharyngeal cancer hpv infection is spread mainly through sexual contact the risk of oropharyngeal cancer is about 15 times higher in people who have oral hpv 16 infection compared with people who do not have oral hpv 16 infection it is not clear whether avoiding certain risk factors will decrease the risk of oral cavity cancer or oropharyngeal cancer it has not been proven that stopping alcohol use will decrease the risk of oral cavity cancer or oropharyngeal cancer getting an hpv vaccination greatly lessens the risk of oral hpv infection it is not yet known whether getting an hpv vaccination at any age will decrease the risk of oropharyngeal cancer from hpv infection
Keywords: cancer, risk, oropharyngeal, oral, cavity, factor, hpv, tobacco, alcohol, people


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Question: what research or clinical trials is being done for oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer
Answer: cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to lower the risk of certain types of cancer some cancer prevention trials are done with healthy people who have not had cancer but who have an increased risk for cancer other prevention trials are done with people who have had cancer and are trying to prevent another cancer of the same type or to lower their chance of developing a new type of cancer other trials are done with healthy volunteers who are not known to have any risk factors for cancer the purpose of some cancer prevention clinical trials is to find out whether actions people take can prevent cancer these may include eating fruits and vegetables exercising quitting smoking or taking certain medicines vitamins minerals or food supplements new ways to prevent oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer are being studied in clinical trials clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country information about clinical trials can be found in the clinical trials section of the nci website check nci s list of cancer clinical trials for oral cavity cancer prevention trials and oropharyngeal cancer prevention trials that are now accepting patients
Keywords: cancer, trial, clinical, prevention, done, prevent, cavity, oral, people, type


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Question: what is are salivary gland cancer
Answer: key points salivary gland cancer is a rare disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the salivary glands being exposed to certain types of radiation may increase the risk of salivary cancer signs of salivary gland cancer include a lump or trouble swallowing tests that examine the head neck and the inside of the mouth are used to detect find and diagnose salivary gland cancer certain factors affect treatment options and prognosis chance of recovery salivary gland cancer is a rare disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the salivary glands the salivary glands make saliva and release it into the mouth saliva has enzymes that help digest food and antibodies that help protect against infections of the mouth and throat there are 3 pairs of major salivary glands parotid glands these are the largest salivary glands and are found in front of and just below each ear most major salivary gland tumors begin in this gland sublingual glands these glands are found under the tongue in the floor of the mouth submandibular glands these glands are found below the jawbone there are also hundreds of small minor salivary glands lining parts of the mouth nose and larynx that can be seen only with a microscope most small salivary gland tumors begin in the palate roof of the mouth more than half of all salivary gland tumors are benign not cancerous and do not spread to other tissues salivary gland cancer is a type of head and neck cancer
Keywords: gland, salivary, cancer, mouth, found, tissue, tumor, neck, rare, small


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Question: who is at risk for salivary gland cancer
Answer: being exposed to certain types of radiation may increase the risk of salivary cancer anything that increases the chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer not having risk factors doesnt mean that you will not get cancer talk with your doctor if you think you may be at risk although the cause of most salivary gland cancers is not known risk factors include the following older age treatment with radiation therapy to the head and neck being exposed to certain substances at work
Keywords: risk, cancer, factor, salivary, certain, exposed, get, gland, increase, radiation


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Question: what are the symptoms of salivary gland cancer
Answer: signs of salivary gland cancer include a lump or trouble swallowing salivary gland cancer may not cause any symptoms it may be found during a regular dental check up or physical exam signs and symptoms may be caused by salivary gland cancer or by other conditions check with your doctor if you have any of the following a lump usually painless in the area of the ear cheek jaw lip or inside the mouth fluid draining from the ear trouble swallowing or opening the mouth widely numbness or weakness in the face pain in the face that does not go away
Keywords: cancer, gland, salivary, symptom, check, face, lump, mouth, sign, swallowing


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Question: how to diagnose salivary gland cancer
Answer: tests that examine the head neck and the inside of the mouth are used to detect find and diagnose salivary gland cancer the following procedures may be used physical exam and history an exam of the body to check general signs of health the head neck mouth and throat will be checked for signs of disease such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual a history of the patient s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken mri magnetic resonance imaging a procedure that uses a magnet radio waves and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body this procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging nmri ct scan cat scan a procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body taken from different angles the pictures are made by a computer linked to an x ray machine a dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly this procedure is also called computed tomography computerized tomography or computerized axial tomography pet scan positron emission tomography scan a procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body a small amount of radioactive glucose sugar is injected into a vein the pet scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do endoscopy a procedure to look at organs and tissues inside the body to check for abnormal areas for salivary gland cancer an endoscope is inserted into the mouth to look at the mouth throat and larynx an endoscope is a thin tube like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing biopsy the removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer fine needle aspiration fna biopsy the removal of tissue or fluid using a thin needle an fna is the most common type of biopsy used for salivary gland cancer incisional biopsy the removal of part of a lump or a sample of tissue that doesnt look normal surgery if cancer cannot be diagnosed from the sample of tissue removed during an fna biopsy or an incisional biopsy the mass may be removed and checked for signs of cancer because salivary gland cancer can be hard to diagnose patients should ask to have the tissue samples checked by a pathologist who has experience in diagnosing salivary gland cancer
Keywords: cancer, body, procedure, tissue, biopsy, gland, salivary, picture, scan, sign


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Question: what is the outlook for salivary gland cancer
Answer: certain factors affect treatment options and prognosis chance of recovery the treatment options and prognosis chance of recovery depend on the following the stage of the cancer especially the size of the tumor the type of salivary gland the cancer is in the type of cancer cells how they look under a microscope the patient s age and general health
Keywords: cancer, chance, gland, option, prognosis, recovery, salivary, type, depend, especially


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Question: what are the stages of salivary gland cancer
Answer: key points after salivary gland cancer has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the salivary gland or to other parts of the body there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body the following stages are used for major salivary gland cancers stage i stage ii stage iii stage iv after salivary gland cancer has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the salivary gland or to other parts of the body the process used to find out if cancer has spread within the salivary glands or to other parts of the body is called staging the information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease it is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment the following procedures may be used in the staging process mri magnetic resonance imaging a procedure that uses a magnet radio waves and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body this procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging nmri ct scan cat scan a procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body taken from different angles the pictures are made by a computer linked to an x ray machine a dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly this procedure is also called computed tomography computerized tomography or computerized axial tomography there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer can spread through tissue the lymph system and the blood tissue the cancer spreads from where it began by growing into nearby areas lymph system the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the lymph system the cancer travels through the lymph vessels to other parts of the body blood the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the blood the cancer travels through the blood vessels to other parts of the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body when cancer spreads to another part of the body it is called metastasis cancer cells break away from where they began the primary tumor and travel through the lymph system or blood lymph system the cancer gets into the lymph system travels through the lymph vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body blood the cancer gets into the blood travels through the blood vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body the metastatic tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor for example if salivary gland cancer spreads to the lung the cancer cells in the lung are actually salivary gland cancer cells the disease is metastatic salivary gland cancer not lung cancer the following stages are used for major salivary gland cancers stage i in stage i the tumor is in the salivary gland only and is 2 centimeters or smaller stage ii in stage ii the tumor is in the salivary gland only and is larger than 2 centimeters but not larger than 4 centimeters stage iii in stage iii one of the following is true the tumor is not larger than 4 centimeters and has spread to a single lymph node on the same side as the tumor and the lymph node is 3 centimeters or smaller the tumor is larger than 4 centimeters and or has spread to soft tissue around the affected gland cancer may have spread to a single lymph node on the same side as the tumor and the lymph node is 3 centimeters or smaller stage iv stage iv is divided into stages iva ivb and ivc as follows stage iva the tumor may be any size and may have spread to soft tissue around the affected gland cancer has spread to a single lymph node on the same side as the tumor and the lymph node is larger than 3 centimeters but not larger than 6 centimeters or has spread to more than one lymph node on either or both sides of the body and the lymph nodes are not larger than 6 centimeters or cancer has spread to the skin jawbone ear canal and or facial nerve and may have spread to one or more lymph nodes on either or both sides of the body the lymph nodes are not larger than 6 centimeters stage ivb the tumor may be any size and may have spread to soft tissue around the affected gland cancer has spread to a lymph node larger than 6 centimeters or cancer has spread to the base of the skull and or the carotid artery and may have spread to one or more lymph nodes of any size on either or both sides of the body stage ivc the tumor may be any size and may have spread to soft tissue around the affected gland to the skin jawbone ear canal facial nerve base of the skull or carotid artery or to one or more lymph nodes on either or both sides of the body cancer has spread to distant parts of the body salivary gland cancers are also grouped by grade the grade of a tumor tells how fast the cancer cells are growing based on how the cells look under a microscope low grade cancers grow more slowly than high grade cancers minor salivary gland cancers are staged according to where they were first found in the body
Keywords: cancer, spread, lymph, stage, body, gland, tumor, salivary, node, centimeter


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Question: what are the treatments for salivary gland cancer
Answer: key points there are different types of treatment for patients with salivary gland cancer patients with salivary gland cancer should have their treatment planned by a team of doctors who are experts in treating head and neck cancer three types of standard treatment are used surgery radiation therapy chemotherapy new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials radiosensitizers patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment follow up tests may be needed there are different types of treatment for patients with salivary gland cancer different types of treatment are available for patients with salivary gland cancer some treatments are standard the currently used treatment and some are being tested in clinical trials a treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer when clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment the new treatment may become the standard treatment patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment patients with salivary gland cancer should have their treatment planned by a team of doctors who are experts in treating head and neck cancer your treatment will be overseen by a medical oncologist a doctor who specializes in treating people with cancer because the salivary glands help in eating and digesting food patients may need special help adjusting to the side effects of the cancer and its treatment the medical oncologist may refer you to other doctors who have experience and expertise in treating patients with head and neck cancer and who specialize in certain areas of medicine these include the following head and neck surgeon radiation oncologist dentist speech therapist dietitian psychologist rehabilitation specialist plastic surgeon three types of standard treatment are used surgery surgery removing the cancer in an operation is a common treatment for salivary gland cancer a doctor may remove the cancer and some of the healthy tissue around the cancer in some cases a lymphadenectomy surgery in which lymph nodes are removed will also be done even if the doctor removes all the cancer that can be seen at the time of the surgery some patients may be given radiation therapy after surgery to kill any cancer cells that are left treatment given after surgery to lower the risk that the cancer will come back is called adjuvant therapy radiation therapy radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high energy x rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing there are two types of radiation therapy external radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer special types of external radiation may be used to treat some salivary gland tumors these include fast neutron radiation therapy fast neutron radiation therapy is a type of high energy external radiation therapy a radiation therapy machine aims neutrons tiny invisible particles at the cancer cells to kill them fast neutron radiation therapy uses a higher energy radiation than the x ray type of radiation therapy this allows the radiation therapy to be given in fewer treatments photon beam radiation therapy photon beam radiation therapy is a type of external radiation therapy that reaches deep tumors with high energy x rays made by a machine called a linear accelerator this can be delivered as hyperfractionated radiation therapy in which the total dose of radiation is divided into small doses and the treatments are given more than once a day internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles seeds wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer the way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated external radiation therapy is used to treat salivary gland cancer and may also be used as palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life chemotherapy chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing when chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body systemic chemotherapy when chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid an organ or a body cavity such as the abdomen the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas regional chemotherapy the way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated see drugs approved for head and neck cancer for more information salivary gland cancer is a type of head and neck cancer new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials this summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials it may not mention every new treatment being studied information about clinical trials is available from the nci website radiosensitizers radiosensitizers are drugs that make tumor cells more sensitive to radiation therapy combining radiation therapy with radiosensitizers may kill more tumor cells patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials follow up tests may be needed some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working decisions about whether to continue change or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended the results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back these tests are sometimes called follow up tests or check ups treatment options by stage stage i salivary gland cancer treatment for stage i salivary gland cancer depends on whether the cancer is low grade slow growing or high grade fast growing if the cancer is low grade treatment may include the following surgery with or without radiation therapy fast neutron radiation therapy if the cancer is high grade treatment may include the following surgery with or without radiation therapy a clinical trial of chemotherapy a clinical trial of a new local therapy check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage i salivary gland cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage ii salivary gland cancer treatment for stage ii salivary gland cancer depends on whether the cancer is low grade slow growing or high grade fast growing if the cancer is low grade treatment may include the following surgery with or without radiation therapy radiation therapy chemotherapy if the cancer is high grade treatment may include the following surgery with or without radiation therapy fast neutron or photon beam radiation therapy a clinical trial of radiation therapy and or radiosensitizers a clinical trial of chemotherapy check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage ii salivary gland cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage iii salivary gland cancer treatment for stage iii salivary gland cancer depends on whether the cancer is low grade slow growing or high grade fast growing if the cancer is low grade treatment may include the following surgery with or without lymphadenectomy radiation therapy may also be given after surgery radiation therapy fast neutron radiation therapy to lymph nodes with cancer chemotherapy a clinical trial of fast neutron radiation therapy to the tumor a clinical trial of chemotherapy if the cancer is high grade treatment may include the following surgery with or without lymphadenectomy radiation therapy may also be given after surgery fast neutron radiation therapy radiation therapy as palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life a clinical trial of radiation therapy and or radiosensitizers a clinical trial of chemotherapy check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage iii salivary gland cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage iv salivary gland cancer treatment of stage iv salivary gland cancer may include the following fast neutron or photon beam radiation therapy a clinical trial of chemotherapy with or without radiation therapy check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage iv salivary gland cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website
Keywords: cancer, trial, clinical, radiation, therapy, patient, gland, salivary, type, stage


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Question: what research or clinical trials is being done for salivary gland cancer
Answer: new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials this summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials it may not mention every new treatment being studied information about clinical trials is available from the nci website radiosensitizers radiosensitizers are drugs that make tumor cells more sensitive to radiation therapy combining radiation therapy with radiosensitizers may kill more tumor cells patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials
Keywords: trial, clinical, cancer, patient, new, part, treatment, radiosensitizers, research, taking


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Question: what is are rectal cancer
Answer: key points rectal cancer is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the rectum health history affects the risk of developing rectal cancer signs of rectal cancer include a change in bowel habits or blood in the stool tests that examine the rectum and colon are used to detect find and diagnose rectal cancer certain factors affect prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options rectal cancer is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the rectum the rectum is part of the bodys digestive system the digestive system takes in nutrients vitamins minerals carbohydrates fats proteins and water from foods and helps pass waste material out of the body the digestive system is made up of the esophagus stomach and the small and large intestines the colon large bowel is the first part of the large intestine and is about 5 feet long together the rectum and anal canal make up the last part of the large intestine and are 6 8 inches long the anal canal ends at the anus the opening of the large intestine to the outside of the body see the following pdq summaries for more information about rectal cancer unusual cancers of childhood treatment see colorectal cancer section colorectal cancer prevention colorectal cancer screening gastrointestinal stromal tumors treatment genetics of colorectal cancer
Keywords: cancer, rectal, large, rectum, colorectal, intestine, body, digestive, part, system


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Question: who is at risk for rectal cancer
Answer: health history affects the risk of developing rectal cancer anything that increases your chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer not having risk factors doesnt mean that you will not get cancer talk to your doctor if you think you may be at risk for colorectal cancer risk factors for colorectal cancer include the following having a family history of colon or rectal cancer in a first degree relative parent sibling or child having a personal history of cancer of the colon rectum or ovary having a personal history of high risk adenomas colorectal polyps that are 1 centimeter or larger in size or that have cells that look abnormal under a microscope having inherited changes in certain genes that increase the risk of familial adenomatous polyposis fap or lynch syndrome hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer having a personal history of chronic ulcerative colitis or crohn disease for 8 years or more having three or more alcoholic drinks per day smoking cigarettes being black being obese older age is a main risk factor for most cancers the chance of getting cancer increases as you get older
Keywords: cancer, risk, factor, history, colorectal, get, increase, personal, rectal, mean


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Question: what are the symptoms of rectal cancer
Answer: signs of rectal cancer include a change in bowel habits or blood in the stool these and other signs and symptoms may be caused by rectal cancer or by other conditions check with your doctor if you have any of the following blood either bright red or very dark in the stool a change in bowel habits diarrhea constipation feeling that the bowel does not empty completely stools that are narrower or have a different shape than usual general abdominal discomfort frequent gas pains bloating fullness or cramps change in appetite weight loss for no known reason feeling very tired
Keywords: bowel, cancer, change, rectal, stool, blood, feeling, habit, sign, symptom


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Question: how to diagnose rectal cancer
Answer: tests that examine the rectum and colon are used to detect find and diagnose rectal cancer tests used to diagnose rectal cancer include the following physical exam and history an exam of the body to check general signs of health including checking for signs of disease such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual a history of the patients health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken digital rectal exam dre an exam of the rectum the doctor or nurse inserts a lubricated gloved finger into the lower part of the rectum to feel for lumps or anything else that seems unusual in women the vagina may also be examined colonoscopy a procedure to look inside the rectum and colon for polyps small pieces of bulging tissue abnormal areas or cancer a colonoscope is a thin tube like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing it may also have a tool to remove polyps or tissue samples which are checked under a microscope for signs of cancer biopsy the removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope to check for signs of cancer tumor tissue that is removed during the biopsy may be checked to see if the patient is likely to have the gene mutation that causes hnpcc this may help to plan treatment the following tests may be used reverse transcriptionpolymerase chain reaction rtpcr test a laboratory test in which cells in a sample of tissue are studied using chemicals to look for certain changes in the structure or function of genes immunohistochemistry a test that uses antibodies to check for certain antigens in a sample of tissue the antibody is usually linked to a radioactive substance or a dye that causes the tissue to light up under a microscope this type of test may be used to tell the difference between different types of cancer carcinoembryonic antigen cea assay a test that measures the level of cea in the blood cea is released into the bloodstream from both cancer cells and normal cells when found in higher than normal amounts it can be a sign of rectal cancer or other conditions
Keywords: cancer, test, tissue, rectal, sign, cell, exam, rectum, used, microscope


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Question: what is the outlook for rectal cancer
Answer: certain factors affect prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options the prognosis chance of recovery and treatment options depend on the following the stage of the cancer whether it affects the inner lining of the rectum only involves the whole rectum or has spread to lymph nodes nearby organs or other places in the body whether the tumor has spread into or through the bowel wall where the cancer is found in the rectum whether the bowel is blocked or has a hole in it whether all of the tumor can be removed by surgery the patients general health whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred come back
Keywords: whether, cancer, rectum, affect, bowel, option, prognosis, recovery, spread, tumor


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Question: what are the stages of rectal cancer
Answer: key points after rectal cancer has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the rectum or to other parts of the body there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body the following stages are used for rectal cancer stage 0 carcinoma in situ stage i stage ii stage iii stage iv after rectal cancer has been diagnosed tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the rectum or to other parts of the body the process used to find out whether cancer has spread within the rectum or to other parts of the body is called staging the information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease it is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment the following tests and procedures may be used in the staging process chest x ray an x ray of the organs and bones inside the chest an x ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film making a picture of areas inside the body colonoscopy a procedure to look inside the rectum and colon for polyps small pieces of bulging tissue abnormal areas or cancer a colonoscope is a thin tube like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing it may also have a tool to remove polyps or tissue samples which are checked under a microscope for signs of cancer ct scan cat scan a procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body such as the abdomen pelvis or chest taken from different angles the pictures are made by a computer linked to an x ray machine a dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly this procedure is also called computed tomography computerized tomography or computerized axial tomography mri magnetic resonance imaging a procedure that uses a magnet radio waves and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body this procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging nmri pet scan positron emission tomography scan a procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body a small amount of radioactive glucose sugar is injected into a vein the pet scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do endorectal ultrasound a procedure used to examine the rectum and nearby organs an ultrasound transducer probe is inserted into the rectum and used to bounce high energy sound waves ultrasound off internal tissues or organs and make echoes the echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram the doctor can identify tumors by looking at the sonogram this procedure is also called transrectal ultrasound there are three ways that cancer spreads in the body cancer can spread through tissue the lymph system and the blood tissue the cancer spreads from where it began by growing into nearby areas lymph system the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the lymph system the cancer travels through the lymph vessels to other parts of the body blood the cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the blood the cancer travels through the blood vessels to other parts of the body cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body when cancer spreads to another part of the body it is called metastasis cancer cells break away from where they began the primary tumor and travel through the lymph system or blood lymph system the cancer gets into the lymph system travels through the lymph vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body blood the cancer gets into the blood travels through the blood vessels and forms a tumor metastatic tumor in another part of the body the metastatic tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor for example if rectal cancer spreads to the lung the cancer cells in the lung are actually rectal cancer cells the disease is metastatic rectal cancer not lung cancer the following stages are used for rectal cancer stage 0 carcinoma in situ in stage 0 abnormal cells are found in the mucosa innermost layer of the rectum wall these abnormal cells may become cancer and spread stage 0 is also called carcinoma in situ stage i in stage i cancer has formed in the mucosa innermost layer of the rectum wall and has spread to the submucosa layer of tissue under the mucosa cancer may have spread to the muscle layer of the rectum wall stage ii stage ii rectal cancer is divided into stage iia stage iib and stage iic stage iia cancer has spread through the muscle layer of the rectum wall to the serosa outermost layer of the rectum wall stage iib cancer has spread through the serosa outermost layer of the rectum wall but has not spread to nearby organs stage iic cancer has spread through the serosa outermost layer of the rectum wall to nearby organs stage iii stage iii rectal cancer is divided into stage iiia stage iiib and stage iiic in stage iiia cancer has spread through the mucosa innermost layer of the rectum wall to the submucosa layer of tissue under the mucosa and may have spread to the muscle layer of the rectum wall cancer has spread to at least one but not more than 3 nearby lymph nodes or cancer cells have formed in tissues near the lymph nodes or cancer has spread through the mucosa innermost layer of the rectum wall to the submucosa layer of tissue under the mucosa cancer has spread to at least 4 but not more than 6 nearby lymph nodes in stage iiib cancer has spread through the muscle layer of the rectum wall to the serosa outermost layer of the rectum wall or has spread through the serosa but not to nearby organs cancer has spread to at least one but not more than 3 nearby lymph nodes or cancer cells have formed in tissues near the lymph nodes or cancer has spread to the muscle layer of the rectum wall or to the serosa outermost layer of the rectum wall cancer has spread to at least 4 but not more than 6 nearby lymph nodes or cancer has spread through the mucosa innermost layer of the rectum wall to the submucosa layer of tissue under the mucosa and may have spread to the muscle layer of the rectum wall cancer has spread to 7 or more nearby lymph nodes in stage iiic cancer has spread through the serosa outermost layer of the rectum wall but has not spread to nearby organs cancer has spread to at least 4 but not more than 6 nearby lymph nodes or cancer has spread through the muscle layer of the rectum wall to the serosa outermost layer of the rectum wall or has spread through the serosa but has not spread to nearby organs cancer has spread to 7 or more nearby lymph nodes or cancer has spread through the serosa outermost layer of the rectum wall and has spread to nearby organs cancer has spread to one or more nearby lymph nodes or cancer cells have formed in tissues near the lymph nodes stage iv stage iv rectal cancer is divided into stage iva and stage ivb stage iva cancer may have spread through the rectum wall and may have spread to nearby organs or lymph nodes cancer has spread to one organ that is not near the rectum such as the liver lung or ovary or to a distant lymph node stage ivb cancer may have spread through the rectum wall and may have spread to nearby organs or lymph nodes cancer has spread to more than one organ that is not near the rectum or into the lining of the abdominal wall
Keywords: cancer, spread, stage, rectum, layer, wall, lymph, body, nearby, tissue


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Question: what are the treatments for rectal cancer
Answer: key points there are different types of treatment for patients with rectal cancer five types of standard treatment are used surgery radiation therapy chemotherapy active surveillance targeted therapy other types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment follow up tests may be needed there are different types of treatment for patients with rectal cancer different types of treatment are available for patients with rectal cancer some treatments are standard the currently used treatment and some are being tested in clinical trials a treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer when clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment the new treatment may become the standard treatment patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment five types of standard treatment are used surgery surgery is the most common treatment for all stages of rectal cancer the cancer is removed using one of the following types of surgery polypectomy if the cancer is found in a polyp a small piece of bulging tissue the polyp is often removed during a colonoscopy local excision if the cancer is found on the inside surface of the rectum and has not spread into the wall of the rectum the cancer and a small amount of surrounding healthy tissue is removed resection if the cancer has spread into the wall of the rectum the section of the rectum with cancer and nearby healthy tissue is removed sometimes the tissue between the rectum and the abdominal wall is also removed the lymph nodes near the rectum are removed and checked under a microscope for signs of cancer radiofrequency ablation the use of a special probe with tiny electrodes that kill cancer cells sometimes the probe is inserted directly through the skin and only local anesthesia is needed in other cases the probe is inserted through an incision in the abdomen this is done in the hospital with general anesthesia cryosurgery a treatment that uses an instrument to freeze and destroy abnormal tissue this type of treatment is also called cryotherapy pelvic exenteration if the cancer has spread to other organs near the rectum the lower colon rectum and bladder are removed in women the cervix vagina ovaries and nearby lymph nodes may be removed in men the prostate may be removed artificial openings stoma are made for urine and stool to flow from the body to a collection bag after the cancer is removed the surgeon will either do an anastomosis sew the healthy parts of the rectum together sew the remaining rectum to the colon or sew the colon to the anus or make a stoma an opening from the rectum to the outside of the body for waste to pass through this procedure is done if the cancer is too close to the anus and is called a colostomy a bag is placed around the stoma to collect the waste sometimes the colostomy is needed only until the rectum has healed and then it can be reversed if the entire rectum is removed however the colostomy may be permanent radiation therapy and or chemotherapy may be given before surgery to shrink the tumor make it easier to remove the cancer and help with bowel control after surgery treatment given before surgery is called neoadjuvant therapy even if all the cancer that can be seen at the time of the operation is removed some patients may be given radiation therapy and or chemotherapy after surgery to kill any cancer cells that are left treatment given after the surgery to lower the risk that the cancer will come back is called adjuvant therapy radiation therapy radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high energy x rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing there are two types of radiation therapy external radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles seeds wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer the way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated external radiation therapy is used to treat rectal cancer short course preoperative radiation therapy is used in some types of rectal cancer this treatment uses fewer and lower doses of radiation than standard treatment followed by surgery several days after the last dose chemotherapy chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping the cells from dividing when chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body systemic chemotherapy when chemotherapy is placed directly in the cerebrospinal fluid an organ or a body cavity such as the abdomen the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas regional chemotherapy chemoembolization of the hepatic artery is a type of regional chemotherapy that may be used to treat cancer that has spread to the liver this is done by blocking the hepatic artery the main artery that supplies blood to the liver and injecting anticancer drugs between the blockage and the liver the livers arteries then carry the drugs into the liver only a small amount of the drug reaches other parts of the body the blockage may be temporary or permanent depending on what is used to block the artery the liver continues to receive some blood from the hepatic portal vein which carries blood from the stomach and intestine the way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated see drugs approved for rectal cancer for more information active surveillance active surveillance is closely following a patient s condition without giving any treatment unless there are changes in test results it is used to find early signs that the condition is getting worse in active surveillance patients are given certain exams and tests to check if the cancer is growing when the cancer begins to grow treatment is given to cure the cancer tests include the following digital rectal exam mri endoscopy sigmoidoscopy ct scan carcinoembryonic antigen cea assay targeted therapy targeted therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells without harming normal cells types of targeted therapies used in the treatment of rectal cancer include the following monoclonal antibodies monoclonal antibody therapy is a type of targeted therapy being used for the treatment of rectal cancer monoclonal antibody therapy uses antibodies made in the laboratory from a single type of immune system cell these antibodies can identify substances on cancer cells or normal substances that may help cancer cells grow the antibodies attach to the substances and kill the cancer cells block their growth or keep them from spreading monoclonal antibodies are given by infusion they may be used alone or to carry drugs toxins or radioactive material directly to cancer cells bevacizumab and ramucirumab are types of monoclonal antibodies that bind to a protein called vascular endothelial growth factor vegf this may prevent the growth of new blood vessels that tumors need to grow cetuximab and panitumumab are types of monoclonal antibodies that bind to a protein called epidermal growth factor receptor egfr on the surface of some types of cancer cells this may stop cancer cells from growing and dividing angiogenesis inhibitors angiogenesis inhibitors stop the growth of new blood vessels that tumors need to grow ziv aflibercept is a vascular endothelial growth factor trap that blocks an enzyme needed for the growth of new blood vessels in tumors regorafenib is used to treat colorectal cancer that has spread to other parts of the body and has not gotten better with other treatment it blocks the action of certain proteins including vascular endothelial growth factor this may help keep cancer cells from growing and may kill them it may also prevent the growth of new blood vessels that tumors need to grow see drugs approved for rectal cancer for more information other types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials follow up tests may be needed some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working decisions about whether to continue change or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended the results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back these tests are sometimes called follow up tests or check ups after treatment for rectal cancer a blood test to measure amounts of carcinoembryonic antigen a substance in the blood that may be increased when cancer is present may be done to see if the cancer has come back treatment options by stage stage 0 carcinoma in situ treatment of stage 0 may include the following simple polypectomy local excision resection when the tumor is too large to remove by local excision check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage 0 rectal cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage i rectal cancer treatment of stage i rectal cancer may include the following local excision resection resection with radiation therapy and chemotherapy after surgery check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage i rectal cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stages ii and iii rectal cancer treatment of stage ii and stage iii rectal cancer may include the following surgery chemotherapy combined with radiation therapy followed by surgery short course radiation therapy followed by surgery and chemotherapy resection followed by chemotherapy combined with radiation therapy chemotherapy combined with radiation therapy followed by active surveillance surgery may be done if the cancer recurs comes back a clinical trial of a new treatment check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage ii rectal cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website stage iv and recurrent rectal cancer treatment of stage iv and recurrent rectal cancer may include the following surgery with or without chemotherapy or radiation therapy systemic chemotherapy with or without targeted therapy a monoclonal antibody or angiogenesis inhibitor chemotherapy to control the growth of the tumor radiation therapy chemotherapy or a combination of both as palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve the quality of life placement of a stent to help keep the rectum open if it is partly blocked by the tumor as palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve the quality of life a clinical trial of a new anticancer drug treatment of rectal cancer that has spread to other organs depends on where the cancer has spread treatment for areas of cancer that have spread to the liver includes the following surgery to remove the tumor chemotherapy may be given before surgery to shrink the tumor cryosurgery or radiofrequency ablation chemoembolization and or systemic chemotherapy a clinical trial of chemoembolization combined with radiation therapy to the tumors in the liver check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage iv rectal cancer and recurrent rectal cancer for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website
Keywords: cancer, trial, clinical, therapy, type, rectal, chemotherapy, radiation, patient, stage


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Question: what research or clinical trials is being done for rectal cancer
Answer: other types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials
Keywords: trial, clinical, cancer, patient, part, new, treatment, research, standard, taking


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Question: what is are skin cancer
Answer: key points skin cancer is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the skin nonmelanoma skin cancer is the most common cancer in the united states being exposed to ultraviolet radiation may increase the risk of skin cancer skin cancer is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the skin the skin is the body s largest organ it protects against heat sunlight injury and infection skin also helps control body temperature and stores water fat and vitamin d the skin has several layers but the two main layers are the epidermis top or outer layer and the dermis lower or inner layer skin cancer begins in the epidermis which is made up of three kinds of cells squamous cells thin flat cells that form the top layer of the epidermis cancer that forms in squamous cells is called squamous cell carcinoma basal cells round cells under the squamous cells cancer that forms in basal cells is called basal cell carcinoma melanocytes found in the lower part of the epidermis these cells make melanin the pigment that gives skin its natural color when skin is exposed to the sun melanocytes make more pigment and cause the skin to tan or darken cancer that forms in melanocytes is called melanoma nonmelanoma skin cancer is the most common cancer in the united states basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma are also called nonmelanoma skin cancer and are the most common forms of skin cancer most basal cell and squamous cell skin cancers can be cured melanoma is more likely to spread to nearby tissues and other parts of the body and can be harder to cure melanoma is easier to cure if the tumor is found before it spreads to the dermis inner layer of skin melanoma is less likely to cause death when it is found and treated early in the united states the number of cases of nonmelanoma skin cancer seems to have increased in recent years the number of cases of melanoma has increased over the last 30 years part of the reason for these increases may be that people are more aware of skin cancer they are more likely to have skin exams and biopsies and to be diagnosed with skin cancer over the past 20 years the number of deaths from melanoma has decreased slightly among white men and women younger than 50 years during that time the number of deaths from melanoma has increased slightly among white men older than 50 years and stayed about the same among white women older than 50 years the number of cases of childhood melanoma diagnosed in the united states is low but increasing over time the number of childhood deaths from melanoma has stayed about the same see the following pdq summaries for more information about skin cancer skin cancer prevention skin cancer treatment melanoma treatment genetics of skin cancer
Keywords: skin, cancer, cell, melanoma, form, layer, number, squamous, year, basal


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Question: who is at risk for skin cancer
Answer: being exposed to ultraviolet radiation may increase the risk of skin cancer anything that increases your chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer not having risk factors doesn t mean that you will not get cancer people who think they may be at risk should discuss this with their doctor being exposed to ultraviolet uv radiation and having skin that is sensitive to uv radiation are risk factors for skin cancer uv radiation is the name for the invisible rays that are part of the energy that comes from the sun sunlamps and tanning beds also give off uv radiation risk factors for nonmelanoma and melanoma cancers are not the same nonmelanoma skin cancer risk factors include being exposed to natural sunlight or artificial sunlight such as from tanning beds over long periods of time having a fair complexion which includes the following fair skin that freckles and burns easily does not tan or tans poorly blue or green or other light colored eyes red or blond hair having actinic keratosis past treatment with radiation having a weakened immune system being exposed to arsenic melanoma skin cancer risk factors include having a fair complexion which includes the following fair skin that freckles and burns easily does not tan or tans poorly blue or green or other light colored eyes red or blond hair being exposed to natural sunlight or artificial sunlight such as from tanning beds over long periods of time having a history of many blistering sunburns especially as a child or teenager having several large or many small moles having a family history of unusual moles atypical nevus syndrome having a family or personal history of melanoma being white
Keywords: risk, cancer, skin, factor, radiation, exposed, fair, sunlight, tan, melanoma


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Question: what are the treatments for myelodysplastic myeloproliferative neoplasms
Answer: key points there are different types of treatment for patients with myelodysplastic myeloproliferative neoplasms five types of standard treatment are used chemotherapy other drug therapy stem cell transplant supportive care targeted therapy new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment follow up tests may be needed there are different types of treatment for patients with myelodysplastic myeloproliferative neoplasms different types of treatments are available for patients with myelodysplastic myeloproliferative neoplasms some treatments are standard the currently used treatment and some are being tested in clinical trials a treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer when clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment the new treatment may become the standard treatment patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment five types of standard treatment are used chemotherapy chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing when chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body systemic chemotherapy when chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid an organ or a body cavity such as the abdomen the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas regional chemotherapy the way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated combination chemotherapy is treatment using more than one anticancer drug see drugs approved for myeloproliferative neoplasms for more information other drug therapy 13 cis retinoic acid is a vitamin like drug that slows the cancer s ability to make more cancer cells and changes the way these cells look and act stem cell transplant stem cell transplant is a method of replacing blood forming cells that are destroyed by chemotherapy stem cells immature blood cells are removed from the blood or bone marrow of the patient or a donor and are frozen and stored after the chemotherapy is completed the stored stem cells are thawed and given back to the patient through an infusion these reinfused stem cells grow into and restore the body s blood cells supportive care supportive care is given to lessen the problems caused by the disease or its treatment supportive care may include transfusion therapy or drug therapy such as antibiotics to fight infection targeted therapy targeted therapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs or other substances to attack cancer cells without harming normal cells targeted therapy drugs called tyrosine kinase inhibitors tkis are used to treat myelodysplastic myeloproliferative neoplasm unclassifiable tkis block the enzyme tyrosine kinase that causes stem cells to become more blood cells blasts than the body needs imatinib mesylate gleevec is a tki that may be used other targeted therapy drugs are being studied in the treatment of jmml see drugs approved for myeloproliferative neoplasms for more information new types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials information about clinical trials is available from the nci website patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial for some patients taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice clinical trials are part of the cancer research process clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment many of today s standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments they often answer important questions and help move research forward patients can enter clinical trials before during or after starting their cancer treatment some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better there are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country see the treatment options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials these have been retrieved from nci s listing of clinical trials follow up tests may be needed some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working decisions about whether to continue change or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended the results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back these tests are sometimes called follow up tests or check ups treatment options for myelodysplastic myeloproliferative neoplasms chronic myelomonocytic leukemia treatment of chronic myelomonocytic leukemia cmml may include the following chemotherapy with one or more agents stem cell transplant a clinical trial of a new treatment check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with chronic myelomonocytic leukemia for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia treatment of juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia jmml may include the following combination chemotherapy stem cell transplant 13 cis retinoic acid therapy a clinical trial of a new treatment such as targeted therapy check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website atypical chronic myelogenous leukemia treatment of atypical chronic myelogenous leukemia cml may include chemotherapy check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with atypical chronic myeloid leukemia bcr abl1 negative for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website myelodysplastic myeloproliferative neoplasm unclassifiable because myelodysplastic myeloproliferative neoplasm unclassifiable mds mpn uc is a rare disease little is known about its treatment treatment may include the following supportive care treatments to manage problems caused by the disease such as infection bleeding and anemia targeted therapy imatinib mesylate check the list of nci supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with myelodysplastic myeloproliferative neoplasm unclassifiable for more specific results refine the search by using other search features such as the location of the trial the type of treatment or the name of the drug talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you general information about clinical trials is available from the nci website
Keywords: trial, clinical, cancer, cell, patient, drug, chemotherapy, therapy, type, myeloproliferative


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Question: what is are ovarian fallopian tube and primary peritoneal cancer
Answer: key points ovarian fallopian tube and primary peritoneal cancers are diseases in which malignant cancer cells form in the ovaries fallopian tubes or peritoneum in the united states ovarian cancer is the fifth leading cause of cancer death in women different factors increase or decrease the risk of getting ovarian fallopian tube and primary peritoneal cancer ovarian fallopian tube and primary peritoneal cancers are diseases in which malignant cancer cells form in the ovaries fallopian tubes or peritoneum the ovaries are a pair of organs in the female reproductive system they are located in the pelvis one on each side of the uterus the hollow pear shaped organ where a fetus grows each ovary is about the size and shape of an almond the ovaries produce eggs and female hormones chemicals that control the way certain cells or organs function the fallopian tubes are a pair of long slender tubes one on each side of the uterus eggs pass from the ovaries through the fallopian tubes to the uterus cancer sometimes begins at the end of the fallopian tube near the ovary and spreads to the ovary the peritoneum is the tissue that lines the abdominal wall and covers organs in the abdomen primary peritoneal cancer is cancer that forms in the peritoneum and has not spread there from another part of the body cancer sometimes begins in the peritoneum and spreads to the ovary ovarian epithelial cancer fallopian tube cancer and primary peritoneal cancer form in the same type of tissue studies of screening tests look at these cancers together see the following pdq summaries for more information about ovarian fallopian tube and primary peritoneal cancers ovarian fallopian tube and primary peritoneal cancer prevention genetics of breast and gynecologic cancers ovarian epithelial fallopian tube and primary peritoneal cancer treatment ovarian germ cell tumors treatment ovarian low malignant potential tumors treatment in the united states ovarian cancer is the fifth leading cause of cancer death in women ovarian cancer is also the leading cause of death from cancer of the female reproductive system over the last 20 years the number of new cases of ovarian cancer has gone down slightly in white women and in black women since 2005 the number of deaths from ovarian cancer also decreased slightly in white and black women
Keywords: cancer, ovarian, tube, fallopian, ovary, peritoneal, primary, peritoneum, woman, form


